Each link below refers to a scholarly work that discusses the definition, characteristics, and\/or implications of empire in a specific region of the world or globally. Researchers with specializations in many historical sub-fields have written these annotated bibliographies, and fellow project investigators have vetted and edited each in a peer-reviewing process. Each of these 300 to 800 word-long bibliographies contains both a summary of the work and an analysis of the books\u2019 scope and argument. These easily accessible reviews are a research tool for students and scholars of the history of empire, who wish to expand their understanding of the concept of \u2018empire\u2019 beyond the way in which empire is studied by scholars in their respective historical field defined by periodization or regional focus. As such, this project will encourage the writing of a new history of empire across the globe and in Asia specifically.<\/p>\n
And now We have revealed this Scripture truly blessed. Observe it and keep from evil, so that you may find mercy. (Qur\u2019an 6: 156)<\/p>\n
This missive, which is stamped with the seal of victory and which\u2014like inspiration descending from the heavens \u2014 is witness to the verse \u201cWe do not punish a nation until We have sent forth a messenger to forewarn them.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 17: 15) has been graciously issued by our most glorious majesty \u2014 we who are the Caliph of God Most High in this world, far and wide; the proof of the verse \u201cthat which profits men remains on the earth\u201d (Qur\u2019an 13: 17) the Solomon of Splendor, the Alexander of eminence; haloed in victory, Faridun triumphant; slayer of the wicked and the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious; the warrior in the Path, the defender of the Faith; the champion, the conqueror; the lion, son and grandson of the lion; standard-bearer of justice and righteousness, Sultan Selim Shah son of Sultan B\u00e2yezid, son of Sultan Mehmet Khan \u2014 and is addressed to the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and perversion, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurping Darius of the time, the malevolent Zahhak of the age, the peer of Cain, Prince Isma\u2018il.<\/p>\n
As the Pen of Destiny has drawn up the rescript \u201cYou bestow sovereignty on whom You will\u201d (Qur\u2019an 3: 26) in our sublime name and has signed it with the verse \u201cThe blessings God bestows on men none can withhold\u201d (Qur\u2019an 35: 2), it is manifest in the Court of Glory and the Presence of Deity that we, the instrument of Divine Will, shall hold in force upon the earth both the commandments and prohibitions of Divine Law as well as the provisions of royal proclamations. \u201cSuch is the grace of God: He bestows it on whom He will.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 57: 21).<\/p>\n
It has been heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright community of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations upon its founder!) to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, that you have unfurled the banner of oppression in the cause of aggression, that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, that you have incited your abominable Shi\u2018i faction to unsanctified sexual union and to the shedding of innocent blood, that \u2014 like they \u201cWho listen to falsehood and practice what is unlawful\u201d (Qur\u2019an 5: 42) \u2014 you have given ear to idle deceitful words and have partaken of that which is forbidden:<\/p>\nHe has laid waste to mosques, as it is said,
\nConstructing idol temples in their stead,\n
that you have rent the noble fabric of Islam with the hand of tyranny, and that you have called the Glorious Qur\u2019an the myths of the Ancients. The rumor of these abominations has caused your name to become like that of Harith deceived by Satan.<\/p>\n
Indeed, as both the legal rulings of distinguished religious scholars who base their opinion on reason and tradition alike and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that the ancient obligation of extirpation, extermination, and expulsion of evil innovation must be the aim of our exalted aspiration, for \u201cReligious zeal is a victory for the Faith of God the Beneficent:\u201d then, in accordance with the words of the Prophet (Peace upon him!) \u201cWhosoever introduces evil innovation into our order must be expelled\u201d and \u201cWhosoever does anything against our order must be expelled,\u201d action has become necessary and exigent. Thus, when the Divine Decree of Eternal Destiny commended the eradication of the infamously wicked infidels into our capable hands, we set out for their lands like ineluctable fate itself to enforce the order \u201cDo no leave a single unbeliever on the earth.\u201d Qur\u2019an 71: 26) If God Almighty wills, the lightning of our conquering sword shall uproot the untamed bramble grown to great heights in the path of the refulgent Divine Law and shall cast them down upon the dust of abjectness to be trampled under the hooves of our legions, for \u201cThey abase the mightiest of its inhabitants and these will do the same\u201d (Qur\u2019an 27: 34); the thunder of our avenging mace shall dash out the muddled brains of the enemies of the Faith as rations for the lionhearted ghazis. \u201cThe wrongdoers will realize what a reversal they shall have.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 26: 227)<\/p>\nWhen I draw my keen-edged weapon from its sheath,
\nThen shall I raise up doomsday on the earth;
\nThen shall I roast the hearts of lion-hearted men,
\nAnd toast the morning with a goblet of their blood.
\nMy crow-fletched shaft will fix the eagle in his flight;
\nAnd my bare blade will shake the orb of day.
\nAsk of the sun about the dazzle of my rein;
\nInquire of Mars about the brilliance of my arms.
\nAlthough you wear a Sufi crown , I bear a trenchant sword,
\nAnd he who holds the sword will soon possess the crown.
\nO Mighty Fortune, pray grant this my single wish:
\nPlease let me take both crown and power from the foe.\n
But \u201cReligion is Counsel.\u201d Therefore, should you turn the face of submission toward our angelic threshold \u2014 the refuge of the noble, the qibla of felicity, and the Ka\u2018ba of certainty \u2014 and lift the hand of oppression from the heads of your subjects bowed by oppression and sedition, take up a course of repentance and become like one blameless, return to the sublime straight path of the Sunna of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations upon him and God\u2019s satisfaction upon his immaculate family and his rightly-guided companions all!) \u2014 for \u201cMy companions are like the stars: whomever you choose to follow, you will be guided aright.\u201d \u2014 and consider your lands and their people a part of the well-protected Ottoman state, then shall you be granted our royal favor and our imperial condescension.<\/p>\nHe whose face touches the dust of my threshold in submission
\nWill be enveloped in the shadow of my favor and my justice.\n
How great the happiness of him who complies with this!<\/p>\n
On the other hand, if your evil and seditious habits have become ingrained in your nature, then that which has become essential can never again be accidental.<\/p>\n
Of what avail are sermons to the black-hearted?<\/p>\n
Then, with the support and assistance of God, I will crown the head of every gallows tree with the head of a crown-wearing Sufi and clear that faction from the face of the earth\u2014\u201cGod\u2019s followers are sure to triumph\u201d (Qur\u2019an 5: 56); I will break the oppressors\u2019 grip with the power of the miraculous white hand of Moses, for \u201cThe Hand of God is above their hands.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 48: 10) Let them remove the cotton of negligence from the ears of their intelligence and, with their shrouds on their shoulders, prepare themselves for \u201cThat which you are threatened with is sure to come.\u201d Qur\u2019an 6: 134) The triumphant troops \u201cAs firm as a mighty edifice\u201d (Qur\u2019an 61: 4) crying out like fate evoked \u201cWhen their hour is come, not for one moment shall they hold it back, nor can they go before it\u201d (Qur\u2019an 7: 34) and maneuvering in accordance with \u201cPut them to death wherever you find them\u201d (Qur\u2019an 4: 89), will wreak ruin upon you and drive you from that land. \u201cSuch being the will of God before and after, and on that day the believers will rejoice in God\u2019s help.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 30: 4) \u201cThus were the evil-doers annihilated. Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 6: 45)<\/p>\n
May his godly majesty, the refuge of Islam, the might of the kingdom, he upon whom God looks with favor, the champion of the sultanate and of the state, the hero of the faith and of the earth, Sultan Selim Shah (God grant him immortal state and eternal happiness!) accept this affectionate greeting and this friendly letter, considering it a token of our good will.<\/p>\n
Now to begin: Your honored letters have arrived one after another, for \u201cNo sooner has a thing doubled than it has tripled.\u201d Their contents, although indicative of hostility, are stated with boldness and vigor. The latter gives us much enjoyment and pleasure, but we are ignorant of the reason for the former. In the time of your late blessed father (May God enlighten his proof!) when our royal troops passed through the lands of Rum to chastise the impudence of \u2018Ala\u2019 al-Dawla Dhu\u2019l-Qadr, concord and friendship was shown on both sides. Moreover, when your majesty was governor at Trebizond there existed perfect mutual understanding. Thus, now, the cause of your resentment and displeasure yet remains unknown. If political necessity has compelled you on this course, then may your problems be soon resolved.<\/p>\nDispute may fire words to such a heat
\nThat ancient houses be consumed in flames.\n
The intention of our inaction in this regard is twofold:<\/p>\n(1) Most of the inhabitants of the land of Rum are followers of our forefathers (May God the All-Forgiving King have mercy upon them!).
\n(2) We have always loved the ghazi-titled Ottoman house and we do not wish the outbreak of sedition and turmoil once again as in the time of Timur.\n
Why should we then take umbrage at these provocations? We shall not.<\/p>\nThe mutual hostility of kings is verily an ancient rite.
\nShould one embrace the bride of worldly rule too close,
\nHis lips will kiss those of the radiant sword.\n
Nevertheless, there is no cause for improper words: indeed, those vain, heretical imputations are the mere fabrications of the opium-clouded minds of certain secretaries and scribes. We therefore think that our delayed reply was not completely without cause for we have now dispatched our honored personal companion and servant Shah Quli Aqa (May he be sustained!) with a golden casket stamped with the royal seal and filled with a special concoction for their use should they deem it necessary. May he soon arrive, so that with assistance from Above, the mysteries concealed behind the veil of fate might be disclosed. Keeping in view that regrets are of no avail in the end, one should always exercise free judgment and not be bound solely by the words of others.<\/p>\n
At this writing we were engaged upon the hunt near Isfahan. We now prepare provisions and our troops for the coming campaign and in all friendship we say, \u201cDo what you will.\u201d<\/p>\nBitter experience has taught that in this world of trial
\nHe who falls upon the house of \u2018Ali always falls.\n
Kindly give our ambassador leave to travel unmolested for \u201cNo soul shall bear another\u2019s burden.\u201d (Qur\u2019an 6: 164; 53: 38) When war becomes inevitable, hesitation and delay must be set aside, and one must think on that which is to come. Farewell.<\/p>\n
Woods, John E. (trans.)\u00a0Asnad va namaha-yi tarikhi va ijtima\u2018i-yi dawrayi safaviya\u00a0<\/em>edited by\u00a0Z.\u00a0<\/em>Sabitiyan Tehran: Ibn Sina, 1964, pp. 112- 117.<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\tThe Treaty of Zuhab\/Kasr-\u0131 \u015eirin (1639)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExpand<\/i><\/a>\nTreaty of Peace and Frontiers (Zuhab\/Kasr-\u0131 \u015eirin), 1639 Praise to God, the Holy, the Gracious, the bestower of Victory; who has opened the door of peace and concord with the key of the words: “Verily I wish nothing so much as reconciliation,” and dispelled the darkness of war and fighting with the light of quiet and happiness. Blessings and benedictions, so long as flowers spread their perfume and daylight shines, upon his Prophet who has fully and clearly manifested the faith, and with whose auspicious advent Islamism was greatly rejoiced; and upon his family, children and companions who have been active in propagating that faith.<\/p>\n Now, whereas, by the will and good pleasure of Him who raised the skies without pillars, and by an effect of the wisdom and omnipotency of Him who composed all things from various elements, and who has no equal, good order in society, and the conservation of the world depend upon the justice and equity of the Sovereigns, and upon their good understanding and union, no less than upon their submission to the positive and to the negative divine Commands, the August Sultans have, in conformity to this sacred precept: \u201cFear God and reconcile yourselves,\u201d resorted to reconciliation, which is a source of happiness, and renounced to hostilities and war, the sword of mutual contrariety was put into the scabbard; and nations which were making war with each other, cordially reconciled themselves. “That is a favour of God. He grants it to whom He pleases: and God is most gracious.<\/p>\n I, therefore, the most humble of all the servants of God, being charged and authorized to do or undo whatever concerns the Empire and the nation, and to make, just as I choose, war or peace, an authority which I hold from the most glorious Padishah who is the Defender of the faith, whose Majesty is as great as that of Solomon, who is the substitute of God in the world, and who has justified the maxim that \u201cAn equitable Sultan is the shadow of God on earth\u201d; the asylum of the greatest Musulman Princes, the shelter of the most illustrious Turkish Sovereigns, the supporter of Islamism and of Musulmans, the exterminator of heresies and of the polytheists, the Sovereign of the two lands and of the two seas, the Sovereign of the two Orients and of the two Occidents, the servant of the two Holy Cities, the treasure of Mankind and apple of the age, who is protected by the Supreme Being whose divine assistance men implore, and favoured by the most High and propitious God; May His Imperial Majesty’s Dynasty last till the end of the world, and their reign be prolonged till the consummation of ages! have, in virtue of my full powers and my real character of the Sultan’s substitute, ordered the Turkish victorious troops to march from beneath Baghdad, and began to go forward with an intention of entering the Persian territory. On our arrival at a station called Haronia, the most distinguished among the Grandees Chems Uddin Mehmed Culy Bey, Great Equerry, arrived there in the capacity of Ambassador with a Letter from Him who is the ornament of the Persian Throne, the splendour of the Kingdom of Djem, and whose magnificence is equal to that of Darius, the great Prince and illustrious Lord, the Precious Pearl of the Sea of Royalty, the sun of the sky of Sovereignty, the noble Eagle of the high region of the Dignity of Shah, the most Illustrious and Majestic Prince whose troops are as numerous as the stars; may the most High God raise the banners of his strength from earth to Heaven, and exalt the edifice of his glory to the height of the vaulted sky! to our great and august Padishah, and also a flattering Letter to me. The Ambassador having asked that the fire of war should be extinguished and the dust of fighting dispersed, stating that His Majesty the Shah’s will is that reconciliation and peace between the two Parties should take place, I, on my part too, wishing to act in conformity to the sacred text, to wit: \u201cIf they incline to peace, do ye also incline to it,\u201d have readily consented, for the sake of the safety and tranquillity of mankind to make Peace; and a letter was sent to the Shah to the end that His Majesty might send a Person of confidence with power to settle the conditions of the Peace, in a manner suitable to the honour and dignity of the two Governments. Consequently the Shah has appointed according to the established laws and rules, to negotiate and conclude this treaty of Peace, and establish and fix the state of the frontiers, the most excellent and faithful Saroukhan, may he always be fortunate in transacting affairs on which quiet and security depend! Saroukhan, on his arrival in the Imperial Camp at Zahab, was received with marks of hospitality; and on the 14th day of Muharem, in the year 1049 of the Hegira of the Prophet, upon whom be the best benedictions, a Divan was held in the Imperial Camp, in which were present the illustrious Vizirs, the Miri Miran, the Commanders and Agas, the Aga of the Janissaries, six Agas of six Companies, and other officers of the army. Saroukhan, the Plenipotentiary who was duly accredited, and the Ambassador Mehmed Culy Bey, were introduced in the Divan, and the preliminaries were discussed with them so as to put on a good footing the position of the Rayas and of the poor who are a trust imposed by the Author of all beings, and the result of the discussions on both Parties has been written down and is as follows: Tzanan, Bedrie, Mendelgeen, Derteuk , and Dernai, in the Pashalik of Baghdad, will remain under the authority of our august Padishah, who will also take possession of the Plains between Mendelgeen and Derteuk, and the Mountain will remain under the authority of the Shah. Serminil is fixed as frontier between Derteuk and Dernai. That part of the country of Haronia, occupied by the Tribes of Djaf and Zilja Uddin, will belong to the Sultan. Pezai and Zerdony remain to the Shah. The fortress of Zindjir, which lies on the top of the Mountain, shall be demolished; the Sultan will take possession of the Villages lying westward of it, and the Shah will take possession of those lying eastward. The Villages on the Mountain above Salim Cal\u00e8, near Chehrezor, will be in the possession of the Sultan, and the Villages lying on the East, will be in the possession of the Shah, who will also keep the Castle of Orman, with the Villages which are dependent on it. The defile leading on Chehrezor has been established as a frontier. The fortress of Kizilidji with its dependencies shall remain in the possession of the Sultan; and Mihreban with the dependencies thereof, in that of the Shah. The fortresses of Cotour (Kotur) and Makoo on the frontier of Van, and the fortress of Magazberd towards Kars and Van, will be demolished by the two Parties, and so long as the Shah will not have molested the fortresses of Akiskha, Kars, Van, Chehrezor, Baghdad, Bassora, and other Places within the limits, such as fortresses, forts, Districts, lands, hills and mountains, and no such horrible act as provoking to rebellion shall have been committed by Him, on their part also His Majesty our Great Padishah will respect this Peace, and no molestation shall, contrary to Treaty, be done to the places which remain within the limits of the other side.<\/p>\n In order, therefore, that Merchants and travellers belonging to either Party may come and go and meet with a friendly reception, I have, in virtue of my full power and positive authority written down this egregious Treaty, the contents of which are true, and sent it to His Majesty the Shah, and to our most August Padishah. So long as the Shah shall, according to the Sacred text: \u201cDo not violate an agreement after ye have done it” observe this treaty as it ought to be observed, His Imperial Majesty, our most Magnificent Padishah also, will act in obedience to the Holy Command: \u201cFulfil your agreement, for an agreement is obligatory.<\/p>\n This Happy Peace will last and be maintained, with the permission of God, till the day of resurrection: \u201cAnd he who shall alter it after having heard it, verily this sin shall be upon those who shall have altered it.\u201d<\/p>\n Praise to God; He is the sole God, and blessings upon him after whom there will be no Prophet. In the beginning; and in the end; and externally; and internally\u2026<\/p>\n The most humble of the servants of God.<\/p>\n Mustafa, Grand Vizier.<\/em><\/p>\n ***<\/p>\n Blech, Edward C. and Sherwood, Harry I. (eds.).\u00a0British & Foreign State Papers, vol. 105<\/em>\u00a0(1912). London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1915. pp. 763-66.<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\tThe Treaty of Karlowitz (1699)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExpand<\/i><\/a>\nTreaty of Karlowitz, 1699 In the Name of the most Holy and Undivided Trinity,<\/p>\n IN perpetual Memory of the Thing, Be it known to all to whom it doth appertain, That after sixteen Years cruel and destructive War, between the most Serene and most Potent Prince and Lord Leopold (with his full Titles) on the one part, and the most Serene and most Potent Prince and Lord, Sultan Mustapha Han, Emperor of the Turks, and of Asia and Greece, and his glorious Predecessors on the other part ; the said most Potent Emperors considering how much Blood has been spilt, and how many Provinces have been laid waste, taking Companion at the afflicted Condition of their Subjects, and being seriously inclin’d to put an end to such great Calamitys increasing every Day to the Danger of Mankind, God thro’ his Mercy has permitted, that by the Mediation of the most Serene and most Potent Prince and Lord William III. King of Great Britain, France and Ireland and the High and Mighty Lords the States General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, solemn Treatys shou\u2019d for this Cause be set on foot, and concluded at Carlowitz in Sirmium, near the Confines of both Empires ; where the Persons lawfully constituted Ambassadors Plenipotentiary, appearing together, viz. in the Name of his Sacred Imperial Majesty of the Romans, the most Illustrious and most excellent Lords, the Lord Wolfgang, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, by the Title of Count of Ottingen Lord of the Bedchamber to his Sacred Imperial Majesty, Privy Counsellor and President of the Imperial Aulic Council ; and the Lord Leopold Schlick, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, with the Title of Count of Passaw and Weiskirchen, a Lord of the Bedchamber also to his said Sacred Imperial Majesty, and Colonel of a Regiment of Dragoons, both deputed Ambassadors Extraordinary, and Plenipotentiarys for a Treaty of Peace with the Ottoman Porte : And in the Name of his Imperial Ottoman Majesty, the most illustrious and excellent Lords, the Lord Mehemet Effendi, High Chancellor of the Ottoman Empire, and the Lord Alexander Mauro Cordato, of the Noble House of the Scarlati, Privy Counsellor and Secretary of the said Empire, with the Intervention and good Officces of the most illustrious and excellent Lords, the Lord William Paget, Baron of Beaudefort, for the most Serene King of Great Britain, and Heer James Colyer for the High and Mighty States General of the United Netherlands, both Ambassadors at the Sublime Ottoman Porte, and Plenipotentiarys for re-establishing a universal Peace; who discharg’d the Mediators Office with Integrity, Diligence and Wisdom, and after invoking the Help of the everlasting God, and duly exchanging their Credentials, have to the Glory of the Divine Being, and to the Welfare of both Empires, agreed on the twenty following Articles of mutual Peace and Concord.<\/p>\n I. The Country of Transilvania shall remain entire as it is now in the Possession and Dominion of his Imperial Majesty, and shall be circumscribed from the Confines of Podolia to the extreme Frontier of Wallachia, with its Mountains, which before the present War, were the antient Boundarys between Transilvania on one part, and Wallachia and Moldavia on the other ; and from the Confines of Wallachia, to the River Marosche, with its Mountains also, which were the antient Boundarys : so that by observing the antient Boundarys on both sides, the same shall not be extended on either side.<\/p>\n II. The Province subject to the Castle of Temeswaer, with all its Districts and Rivers, shall remain in the Possession and Power of the sublime Ottoman Porte. And the antient Limits of Transilvania, establish’d in the foregoing Article, from the extreme Frontier of Wallachia to the River Marosche, shall be its Limits on the side of Transilvania. Thence its Boundarys shall be carry’d on from the hither Banks of the Marosche to the River Teysse, and from the hither Bank of the Teysse to the Danube : But the Places within the Limits, viz. Caransebes, Lugas, Lippa, Csanad, Kiscanisia, Betscke, Betskerck, and the hither Sablia, and between the antient Limits of Transilvania, as they were settled before the War, and what other Place soever be found according to the Rule abovemention’d, between the Banks of the Marosche and the Teysse, in the Territorys of Temeswaer, shall be demolish’d by the Imperialists, on this Condition that they shall never be rebuilt by virtue of any other Treaty. And the said Country of Temeswaer shall be left altogether free ; and no other Places, either greater or less, which have the appearance of a Fortification, shall hereafter be built, either in the said Places, or near the Banks of the Marosche and the Teysse.<\/p>\n The Use of the Rivers Marosche and Teysse, between the Province of Temeswaer and the Provinces subject to the Emperor’s Power and Possession, shall be common to the Subjects of both Empires, whether for watering of Cattle of all forts, or for Fishing, or other Conveniences necessary for the Subjects.<\/p>\n And whereas Ships of Burden bound from the Parts abovemention’d, subject to the Imperial Dominion, either in passing or repassing thro’ the River Marosche to the River Teysse, or thro’ the Teysse to the Danube, ought not to meet with any Obstruction ; the Navigation of the German Ships, or of any others – which are subject\u00a0 to the Emperor, shall by no means be disturb’d in their Passage to and fro, but the same shall be freely and commodiously \u00a0carry’d on every where in both the said Rivers : and for the preservation of a reciprocal Friendship and Good-will, the Subjects of the Ottoman Porte shall share the Conveniences of the said Rivers, without any Hindrance to the Fisher-Boats, and Mills shall be plac’d by the Participation and Consent of the Governours of both Dominions, only in such places where they may not be a Hindrance to the Navigation of either Empire. But left the Passage of the Imperial Ships shou’d suffer any Detriment, by turning off the Water of the Marosche, it shall not be lawful to divert or turn off the Water of the said Rivers, for the fake of Mills, or on any other account.<\/p>\n All the Islands whatsoever in the said Rivers, which are actually in the Emperor’s Power, shall remain as they are in his Possession ; and the Subjects of both Dominions shall live peaceably and quietly, and be restrain’d by the severest Edicts from Insults, and from Breach of the Articles.<\/p>\n III. Whereas the Country between the Rivers Teysse and Danube, commonly call’d Batska, is in the sole Possession and Power of his Imperial Majesty, so it shall remain hereafter in the said Imperial Power and Dominion, and Titul shall never be more fortify’d than it is.<\/p>\n IV. A Line mall be drawn from the extremity of the Strand on this side the Teysse over against Titul, and from the Angle of Land which is there form’d by the Conjunction of the Teysse and the Danube, quite to the Bank of the Danube ; and another Line from the hither side of the Teysse to the River Bossut, and to the hither Bank of Moravitz, and from thence to the Place where the biggest Branch of the Bossut falls into the Save : and there shall be no Fortification upon the Moravitz, but only open Villages built on both sides of it, so that the said Line shall be confirm’d and distinguish’d either by Ditches, or Stones, or Posts, or some other way to serve as the Limits of both Empires in the manner following.<\/p>\n The Country towards Belgrade, within the aforesaid Limits, shall remain solely in the Possession and Dominion of the most Potent Emperor of the Turks.<\/p>\n But the Country situate on the other side of the said Line, shall remain in the sole Possession and Power of the most Potent Emperor of the Romans ; and according to those Limits shall be the Possession of the Rivers which are in the Territorys remaining in the possession of both Partys.<\/p>\n V. That Part of the Save which waters those Countrys belonging to the Emperor of the Romans, shall be possess’d by his said Majesty, and the other Part shall be possess’d by the Ottoman Emperor.<\/p>\n That Part of the Save which runs betwixt both Empires, together with the Islands therein, shall be common to the Subjects or both for Navigation to and fro, and for any other Conveniences ; and both shall religiously observe the Commerce peaceably, and without Molestation.<\/p>\n The Country belonging to the Dominion of his Imperial Ottoman Majesty, as far as the River Unna towards Bosnia, shall be limited and bounded by the hither Shore of the River Unna: and ail the Imperial Garrisons that are in Novi, Dubizza, Sessenovizza, Doboy and Bred on the part of Bosnia, and any other such place in this Tract, shall be drawn out from thence, and the same shall be left entirely free.<\/p>\n But whereas Castanoviz, and the Islands below the Country of Novi, towards the Save, together with the farthermost Bank of the said River Unna, are and remain in the Power of the Emperor of the Romans, they shall be distinguish’d henceforth by the aforesaid Limits.<\/p>\n Finally, the Places beyond the Unna, far remote from the Save, which are garison’d and possess’d by both Partys, together with the Lands belonging to the same before the present War, shall also remain in the Power of either Party who possesses them, on condition that Commissioners who shall be deputed on both sides, do separate and divide the Districts and Territorys that are to remain in the possession of both, in the Parts of Croatia, by particular Lines distinguishable by Ditches, Stones, Stakes, or any other Marks for avoiding Confusion.<\/p>\n And whoever on either side shall presume to alter, change, pull up, take away, or in any respect: to violate any of those Marks, the strictest Inquiry shall be made after him ; and if he be apprehended, he shall be most severely punisih’d for an Example to others.<\/p>\n The Commissioners shall be deputed as soon as possible, to distinguish and fix the Bounds in Croatia ; and they shall be enjoin’d to give diligent Attention to the Tranquillity and Security of both Dominions, and that they faithfully and clearly separate and distinguish the Territory’s without any Prejudice or Affection.<\/p>\n Whereas the Fortifications of the Castle of Bred, situate on the other side of the Save (towards the Ottoman Empire) which were lately made by the Imperialists, ought to be demolish’d at the time of withdrawing the Imperial Garrison, and the said Place lies very commodiously for Traffick, a City may be built there with a handsome convenient Precinct ; provided nevertheless that it be not turn’d into the Form of a Castle or Fort.<\/p>\n VI. The Limits prescrib’d by these Articles, and those which shall hereafter be settled, if need be, by the Commissioners, shall be sacredly and religiously observ’d on both sides, in such manner that they shall on no account or pretext be extended, transferr’d or chang’d. Nor shall it be lawful for either of the contracting Partys, to claim or exercise any Right or Power to any Territory of the other Party, beyond the Bounds or Lines when settled ; or to compel the Subjects of the other Party to pay any Tribute whatsoever past or to come, or to subject him to any kind of Exaction or Vexation that the Wit of Man can invent : but all wrangling shall be fairly remov’d.<\/p>\n VII. It shall be lawful and free for both Partys, for the Security of their Frontiers, to repair, Strengthen and fortify the Castles, Forts and Places, of which by the present Articles they are to have quiet Possession, in such manner as they shall judge most convenient, except those that are above excepted by Name. And for the Convenience of the Inhabitants, it shall be lawful for both Partys, without molestation, and without exception, to build Habitations, and have open Villages ; provided that no new Forts are erected under this Pretence.<\/p>\n VIII. All hostile Incursions, Usurpations and Invasions made clandestinely, or by surprize, and all Devaluations and Depopulations of the Territorys of either Dominions, shall be deem’d unlawful, and shall be prohibited by the severed Mandates And the Transgressors of this Article, wherever they are apprehended, shall immediately be committed to Prison, and receive condign Punishment without Mercy from the Jurisdiction of the Place where they shall be committed : and whatever they have taken shall be most diligently inquir’d after, and when found, faithfully restor’d to the Owners. Also the Captains, Commanders and Governours of both Partys shall be oblig’d to administer Justice diligently and uprightly, on pain, not only of the Loss of Office, bat of Life and Honour.<\/p>\n IX. It shall also be unlawful to give any Sanctuary or Support to wicked Men, Rebels, or Malecontents, but both Partys shall be oblig’d to bring such sort of Men, and all Thieves, Robbers, &c. whom they shall apprehend in their Dominions, to condign Punishment, altho they happen to be the Subjects of the other Party ; and if they cannot be apprehended, they shall be describ’d to their Captains or Governours ; and if they happen to lurk in their Jurisdictions, they shall be impower’d to apprehend and punish them : and if these don’t discharge their Duty by punishing such Criminals, they shall incur the Indignation of their Emperor, and be turn’d out of Office, or punish’d in the place of the Delinquents. And to guard also against the Insolence of Men yet more wicked, it shall be lawful for neither of the Partys to entertain and maintain Man-stealers, call’d Pribeck, and such sort of wicked People who are in the Pay of neither Prince, but live by Robbery ; and both they and those who support them shall be duly punish’d: and whatever Pretences such wicked Men make of Amendment of their former Lives, they mail not be trusted nor tolerated near the Frontiers, but transported to other Places at a greater distance.<\/p>\n X. Whereas during this War many Hungarians and Transilvanians withdrew from their Subjection to his Imperial Majesty to the Frontiers of the Sublime Ottoman Porte, and are to be taken care of in a due manner by the Treaty now concluded between both Empires, ’tis stipulated that they shall live in Freedom and Security in the Dominions of the said Empire.<\/p>\n But left the Tranquillity of the Frontiers, and the Peace of the Subjects shou’d be in any manner disturb’d, the Places where they mall be fix’d, shall be far enough from such Frontiers ; and the Wives shall have leave to follow their Husbands, and to cohabit with them in the Imperial District assign’d for their Settlement.<\/p>\n And whereas hereafter they are to be reckon’d among the other Subjects of the most Potent Emperor of the Turks, it fnall not be lawful for them ever to withdraw from his Subjection any more ; and if they offer to return to their own Country, they shall be deem\u2019d Malecontents, and shall have no Shelter, nor Support from the Germans, but when apprehended, shall be deliver’d to the Turkish Governors of the Frontiers, for the greater Security of the Peace on both sides.<\/p>\n XI. In order wholly to prevent all Controversys, Disputes or Differences hereafter on the Frontiers concerning any of the Articles of this Armistice, an equal number of Commissioners shall be chose on both sides, Men no ways covetous, but grave, honest, wise, experienc’d and peaceable ; who, when there is need of a speedy Remedy, shall repair to the Frontiers, where meeting at a proper place without an Army, with an equal Number of Gentlemen of peaceable Dispositions, they shall hear, take cognizance of, decide and amicably compose all and singular such, emergent Controversys, and settle such an Order and Method, that both Partys may compel their Men and Subjects by the severest Punishments, to the sincere and firm Observation of the Peace, without any Prevarication or Pretext. But if Disputes happen of such moment that they cannot be adjusted and dispatch’d by the Commissioners of both Partys, then they shall be referred to both the mod Potent Emperors, that they themselves may find out, and make use of ways and means for clearing and extinguishing them, in a manner that such Controversys may be accommodated in as little time as possible, without any Neglect or Delay.<\/p>\n And moreover, whereas in the former Sacred Capitulations, all Duels and Challenges were prohibited, they shall hereafter be unlawful ; and if any shall presume to enter into single Combat, they shall be severely dealt with as Transgressors.<\/p>\n XII. Prisoners taken on both sides during the War, who are yet living in Confinement, and have reason to hope for Deliverance one time or other by means of this Peace, and cannot be left in the same miserable and calamitous state of Captivity, without Offence to that Piety and Good Nature for which the Emperors are admir’d, shall be set at Liberty by way of Exchange, after the usual or more honourable Methods ; and if there be more Prisoners in number or of greater Rank on one fide than the other, the Clemency of both their Imperial Majestys who are so well inclin’d to this happy Peace, shall not be deny’d to the rest, when the Embassadors make solemn Instances for their Release.<\/p>\n As for those who are in the Power of private Persons, or even with the Tartars, it shall be lawful for them to procure their Liberty, by as moderate a Ransom as they can ; and if such Captives cannot bring their Master to a fair Accommodation, the Judges of the Place shall end every Dispute by a Composition. But if this cannot be effected by the ways and means aforesaid, the Captives shall be set at Liberty, if it appears by Oath, or other Evidence, that they have paid their Ransom. Nor shall their Owners for the fake of more Lucre oppose their Ransom : and when Men are not sent from the Sublime Ottoman Torte, to assist in setting such Prisoners at Liberty, it will be expected from the Probity of the Imperial Governours, that they oblige the Owners to let go such Prisoners, on paying down the full Price for which they were bought, that so this good Work may be promoted on both sides with equal Piety.<\/p>\n Finally, till the Captives on both sides are releas’d by the means aforesaid, the Embassadors Plenipotentiary shall use their Offices on both sides, that the poor Prisoners may be civilly treated in the mean time.<\/p>\n XIII. In respect to the Monks, and the Exercise of the Christian Religion, according to the Rites of the Roman Catholick Church, whatever Favours were granted them by any former Ottoman Emperors of most Glorious Memory in their Reigns, either by Sacred Capitulations, or by Imperial Signs Manual, or by particular Edicts and Mandates ; the most Serene Emperor of the Ottomans will hereafter confirm them in such manner, that they may repair their Churches, and perform their Functions as usual heretofore. And it shall nor be lawful for any one to molest or extort Money from the said Monks, of what Order or Condition soever they be, contrary to the sacred Capitulations and the divine Laws, but they shall enjoy the Clemency of the Emperor as usual.<\/p>\n Moreover, it shall be lawful for the Embassador of the most Serene and most Potent Emperor of the Romans at the resplendent Porte, to produce his Commission concerning Religion, and the Places of Christian Visitation in the holy City of Jerusalem, and to prevent his Instances to the Imperial Throne.<\/p>\n XIV. Trade shall be free for the Subjects of both Partys, in all the Kingdoms and Dominions of both Empires, according to the antient sacred Capitulations. And that it may be carry’d on by both Partys with Profit, and without Fraud and Deceit, the same shall be settled by Stipulations between Commissarys deputed on both sides, well vers’d in Merchandize, at the time of solemn Embassys on both sides: and as has been observ’d with other Nations in Friendship with the Sublime Empire, so his Imperial Majefty’s Subjects of what Nation soever, shall enjoy the Security and Advantage of Trade in the Kingdoms of the Sublime Empire, as well as the usual Privileges in a fitting manner.<\/p>\n XV. All Conditions whatsoever express’d in the antient sacred Capitulations, provided they be not contrary or prejudicial to the foregoing Articles of this Treaty, or to the free Dominion and Enjoyment of the Possessors, shall hereafter be religiously observ’d and perform’d ; but those which are in any fort repugnant to the aforesaid, shall be made null and void.<\/p>\n XVI. And that this Armistice and a good Friendship may be confirm’d and flourish between both the most Potent Emperors, solemn Embassadors shall be sent on both sides, who shall be receiv’d, honour’d and treated equally alike, with the usual Ceremonys, from the time of their first Entrance to their Return to the Place where they are to make the second Exchange, provided nevertheless that they bring a convenient free Gift in token of their Friendship, which is correspondent with the Dignity of both Emperors : And according to the Custom which has a long while been observ’d between both Empires, after previously settling a mutual Correspondence, they shall be exchange’d on the Confines of Szerem, and set out on their Journeys at one and the same time.<\/p>\n Moreover, the said solemn Embassadors may lawfully demand what they think fit at either of the Imperial Courts.<\/p>\n XVII. The same Rule and Order, observ’d heretofore for receiving, honouring and entertaining Embassadors passing to and fro, and residing, shall henceforwards be observ’d on both sides with equal Decorum, according to the particular Character of those who are sent.<\/p>\n It shall be lawful for the Imperial Embassadors and Residents, and all their Servants, to wear what Liverys they please without any Molestation.<\/p>\n Moreover, the Imperial Ministers, whether they discharge the Office of Embassador, Envoy, Resident or Agent, shall enjoy the same Libertys, Immunitys and Privileges, even to the distinguishing the Prerogative of the Imperial Dignity, as the Embassadors and Agents of other Princes in Amity with the Resplendent Porte, and shall have free Leave to hire Interpreters.<\/p>\n The Couriers also, and their other Servants going to and fro between Vienna and the Resplendent Porte, shall have a secure passage, and have all manner of Favour shewn them, that they may perform their Journey commodiously.<\/p>\n XVIII. This Peace, tho concluded according to the foregoing Articles, shall not have its full Force, nor engage the Partys\u00a0 concern’d to observe the Laws of it, till every thing stipulated on both sides, as well with regard to the Limits as to Evacuations and Demolitions of Places, be entirely perform’d ; for the speedy Accomplishment whereof, Commissioners on both sides shall be appointed to fix and distinguish the Limits and Boundarys, who at the ensuing Equinox, viz. the 22d of March or the 12th O. S. 1699, shall meet with a moderate and peaceable Retinue, at Places to be agreed upon among the Commissioners, by the Consent of the Governours of both the Frontiers, and shall within two Months, or sooner if possible, distinguish, separate and determine the Confines with clear and evident Boundarys, as they are constituted by the former Articles ; and they shall accurately and speedily execute the Statutes between the Embassadors Plenipotentiarys of both Empires.<\/p>\n XIX. The Embassadors Plenipotentiarys of both Empires reciprocally engage themselves, and promise that they will infallibly procure these Conditions and Articles to be ratify’d by both their Imperial Majestys, and that the solemn Ratifications shall be exchang’d reciprocally and duly on the Confines, within 50 days from the Day of signing or sooner, by the most illustrious and most excellent the Embassadors Plenipotentiary Mediators.<\/p>\n XX. This Armistice shall continue, and be extended by God’s Blessing for 25 Years, to count from the Day of Signing ; and at the end of that Term, or in the meanwhile, both Partys shall be at liberty, if they please, to prolong it for several Years more.<\/p>\n Therefore whatever Conditions are establish’d, by mutual and free Consent, between the most Serene and most Potent Emperor of the Romans, and the most Serene and most Potent Emperor of the Turks, and their Heirs, Empires and Kingdoms, Country’s, Citys, Towns, Subjects and Vassals, whether by Land or Sea, shall be religiously and inviolably observ’d.<\/p>\n And it shall be strictly requir’d of all the Governours, Generals, Militia, and all under their Vassalage, Obedience and Subjection, that they conforming themselves also in an adequate manner to the foremention’d Conditions, Clauses, Covenants and Articles, take all possible Care not to contravene or infringe this Peace and Friendship, upon any Account or Pretence whatsoever; but that abstaining from Enmity of all sorts, they cultivate a good Neighbourhood , knowing for certain that if they do not behave as they are hereby admonish’d, they will be most severely punish’d.<\/p>\n The Chan himself also of the Crim, and all the Nations of the Tartars, by whatsoever name call’d, are bound to the due Observation of the Laws of this Peace and good Neighbourhood and Reconciliation ; nor shall they by contravening them exercise any Hostilitys towards any of the Imperial Provinces and their Subjects or Vassals. Moreover, if any, either of the Armys or of the Tartar Nations, shall dare to do any thing contrary to these Sacred Imperial Capitulations, and contrary to their Covenants and Articles, he shall be most feverely punish’d.<\/p>\n The said Peace, Quiet and Security of the Subjects of both Empires shall begin upon the aforesaid Day of Subscription, from which time all Enmity on both sides shall cease and be laid aside, and the Subjects of both Partys shall enjoy Safety and Tranquillity. And to the end that Hostilitys may with the greatest Care and Diligence be suppress’d, Mandates and Edicts shall be transmitted with all speed to publish \u00a0the Peace to all the Governours of the Frontiers : And whereas some Time is requisite for the Officers, especially on the more remote Frontiers, to obtain Notice of the Peace being concluded, twenty days are appointed for that purpose ; after which, if any one shall presume to commit any Hostility on either side, he shall be subject to the Penaltys abovementioned without Mercy.<\/p>\n Finally, That the Conditions of the Peace concluded in these 20 Articles may be accepted on both sides, and inviolably observ’d with all due Respect, the Ottoman Plenipotentiarys by virtue of the Emperor’s full Power to them granted, have exhibited to us the Instrument writ in the Turkish Language, and legally and validly sign’d. We also, by virtue of our Instructions and full Powers, have in like manner deliver’d a legal and valid Instrument in the Latin Tongue, containing those Articles sign’d with our Hands and seal’d with our Seals. Done at the Congress which was held at Carlowitz in Szerem, under Tents, the 26th of January 1699.<\/p>\n(L. S.) Wolfgang Count ab Ottingen. In the Name of the most Holy and Undivided Trinity,<\/p>\n IN perpetual memory of the thing ; be it known to all whom it doth concern. The most Serene and most Potent Prince, William III. King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, and the High and Mighty Lords the States General of the United Netherlands, out of a desire to stop the Effusion of human Blood, and to restore the Tranquillity on both sides, which has been so long disturb’d by a difference between the Kingdom of Poland and the Sublime Empire, having interpos’d their Mediation to procure this Treaty of Peace ; and the most excellent Lords, William Lord Paget, Baron of Beaudesert in the County of Stafford, and the King’s Lord Lieutenant thereof, Ambassador Plenipotentiary on the part of his Britannick Majesty at the Resplendent Porte, and the Heer James Colyer, Ambassador Plenipotentiary also at the same Porte on the part of the High and Mighty Lords the States General of the United Netherlands, having diligently and zealously perform’d the Offices and Conditions of the said Mediation, with a reciprocal Inclination and Propension to accommodate and suppress the said Quarrel ; and a Congress of the Ambassadors Plenipotentiary being appointed by the Mediators at Carlowitz on the Confines of Szerem, where a Treaty of Peace was set on foot with the most illustrious and most excellent Lord, Mehemet Effendi, great Chancellor of the Sublime Empire, and the most illustrious and most excellent Lord, Alexander Mauro Cordato, of the noble Family of Scarlati, a Privy Counsellor of the said Sublime Empire ; at length by God’s Blessing after some Sessions, a Peace was happily concluded on Terms of mutual Obligation. Therefore a Friendship and Peace is again perfected, concluded, restored and renewed between the most Serene and most Potent Sultan Mustapha, Emperor of the Mussulmen, Son of Sultan Mahomet, and the most Serene and most Potent King Augustus II. my most gracious Lord, and the Republick of Poland, on the eleven following Articles, which are by mutual Consent to be religiously observ’d for ever between both Dominions ; which Articles are hereafter set down one by one.<\/p>\n I. The antient Friendship being again renew’d by the Providence of the most High God, together with a hearty Reconciliation and good Neighbourhood, all Hostilitys shall cease for ever on both sides, and the Subjects shall enjoy and be establish’d in their former Security and Tranquillity ; and the Frontiers of the Provinces subject to Poland, shall be separated and distinguished by their antient Boundarys from the Imperial Frontiers, as well of Moldavia, as of other Districts subject to the Sublime Empire ; nor shall there be any Extension or Restriction of the same hereafter, but the antient Limits shall be religiously observ’d and kept as sacred, without any Alteration and Disturbance.<\/p>\n II. All the Fortresses or Places, whether greater or lesser, comprehended within the antient Limits of Moldavia before the last War but one, and which have hitherto been detain’d by the Poles, shall be evacuated by their Soldiers ; and the Province of Moldavia shall remain intirely free, in the pacifick State it was in before the last War.<\/p>\n III. The Fortress of Caminiec, which is also situate within the antient Limits of Poland as they stood before the two last Wars, shall be entirely evacuated by the Mussulmen ; and hereafter no Demand shall be made by the Sublime Empire to the Provinces of Podolia and the Ukrain. And whereas the antient Limits of Poland and Moldavia are manifest, if there be a convenient time the Evacuation shall commence at the beginning of March next, and, if possible, sooner\u00a0 ; and as soon as the Fortresses and Places of Moldavia are evacuated, by the withdrawing of the Polish Militia, and Moldavia thereby remains free, the Evacuation of the Fortress of Caminiec shall also commence at the beginning of March ; and after the Affair of the Evacuations is perfected, it shall be put in execution without Hesitation, Delay and Neglect; and the Evacuation of Fort Caminiec shall be finish’d by the 15th of May next at farthest. And to the intent that the same may be evacuated with ease and speed, the Poles shall give all the Assistance possible with Waggons and Horses for the Transportation ; and the Affair of the Evacuation shall be carry’d on every where with security : so that if in the Evacuation of the Forts and other Places howsoever fortify ‘d, any of the Subjects have a mind to go out, they may safely depart with their Houshold Goods, and other Effects and whoever has a mind to stay, shall have the same Protection without Impediment. And since the Evacuation of the Forts and Places on both sides, is to commence in the beginning of March next, the Polish Embassador, who is speedily to be dispatch’d to the resplendent Porte, shall make Representation to the Imperial Throne of the Guns left at Caminiec, whether their own, or such as were found there.<\/p>\n IV. None of the Subjects of the Sublime Empire, of what Condition soever, especially the Tartars of any Nation soever, shall on the score of any Pretence or Controversy whatsoever exercise Hostilitys against the Subjects of the King and Republick of Poland, and against their Frontiers, nor commit Excursions, carry or Persons to Captivity, drive away Cattle, nor do them any Damage or Injury ; and the Viziers, Beglerbeys, and the Ham of Crim Tartary, with the other Sultans, and the Weywod of Moldavia, shall be expressly commanded by Royal Edicts, to be very diligent in observing and keeping Peace and Tranquillity on the Frontiers, and that they do not injure the Subjects of Poland, by carrying off their People, driving away their Cattle, or by hurting or molesting them in any other way ; and that they inquire most strictly after the Disturbers and Transgressors of the Articles of Peace ; and that when they discover them, they punish them for Examples to others ; and that Restitution be made of Plunder to the proper Owners, and that if any a6t herein negligently or carelessly, they shall be justly punish’d, either by the Loss of their Offices, or of Life, as shall be consistent with the Divine Laws : And in like manner the Poles shall diligently, and in all respects observe and cultivate this Peace, and none shall dare to contravene it.<\/p>\n V. Whereas the Kingdom of Poland has been free time out of mind, it shall not be disturb’d by any Hostility on the part of the Sublime Empire, or the Nations thereunto subject:, under colour of any Pretension whatsoever; nor shall be bound to comply with such Pretensions by virtue of the Articles of this Peace.<\/p>\n VI. The Tartars of Budziac, and other Tartars, having during this War made Excursions from their own Territorys into those of Moldavia, where they committed several Acts of Rapine and Violence against the Moldavians and their Country, which is contrary to the sacred Capitulations made heretofore with the Kings of Poland, and therefore ought to be prevented and suppress’d, the Tartars shall be remov’d from all the Places, Farms, and other Estates, which they are now possessed of, or have newly built in Moldavia, and shall live peaceably in their own native Country, without committing any Offences hereafter.<\/p>\n VII. The Roman Catholick Monks shall have their Churches, and the Exercise of their accustomed Functions thro’out the Empire, without Molestation or Disturbance, according to the Edicts formerly granted them by the Sublime Empire ; and it shall be lawful for the Embassador Extraordinary of Poland at the Resplendent Porte, to make any further Remonstrances on the head of Religion to the Imperial Throne.<\/p>\n VIII. Whereas Peace gives Life and Soul to Commerce, which, when regulated, reduces Provinces to a better State, the Merchants of both Dominions, who hereafter come and go, not thro’ clandestine Places but by Places of publick Access, after they have paid the antient Duties for Goods imported and exported, shall not be molested with new Exactions and Demands, nor shall the Dutys be demanded for ready Money. And all the Natives of Poland and Lithuania, and other Nations to them subject, who come for Traffick, and do no Damage, but carry on Trade, and Buying and Selling, as is also declar’d in former sacred Capitulations, shall not be molested by the Demand of the Tax call’d Haracz, and other inordinate Exactions ; but if any leaving their own Countrys settle in the Kingdoms of the Empire, and if other Foreigners mingle with the Poles, left such should prove to the Detriment of the Republick, nothing shall be demanded for the Arms, Horses and Captives of the Polish Merchants, who having a legal Discharge, are willing to return to their own Country ; nor shall any Person hinder the Captives so going away : but it shall not be lawful for any Person under that Pretence to take prohibited Goods along with them without Leave. Moreover, in case of the Death of any Merchants of both Dominions in other Countrys, their Goods and Effects shall not be seiz’d or divided by the Officers of either Party, but shall be deliver’d to a Merchant of Credit, that he may deliver the same to the Heirs, according to the Inventory taken upon Oath; but if any Dispute happen between the Merchants, the same shall be decided by the Provost, who shall do Justice to whom ’tis due. No body shall be compell’d, contrary to the divine Laws, to pay a Debt which is not confirm’d by Writing, or some judicial Instrument ; nor shall Disputes about Debts and Suretyships be pleaded or heard only upon hired Evidence, but the Causes shall be juftly and duly decided by legal written Instruments : and in such Causes the Grants contain’d and stipulated to other Confederate Nations, in the sacred Capitulations, shall also be extended to the Polish Merchants. And further, the Sense and Meaning of the sacred Edicts granted heretofore to the Poles in particular, and kept in their Custody, shall be regarded and obferv’d.<\/p>\n IX. The Prisoners and Captives taken by either side during the War shall be set at Liberty, paying their Ransom, which shall be settled according to the Laws, or according to the Oath that shall be made of it, pursuant to the Declaration of former Capitulations in this point. But if a Captive hath serv’d a long time, when ’tis but just that his Ransom should be cheaper, if the Owner of the Captive will not agree to take a fair and moderate Price, such Differences shall be decided by the Judges of the Places, proceeding according to Law. If upon any account Prisoners are taken out of the Polish Countrys, after the Conclusion of the Peace, they shall be discharg’d gratis ; and the Persons who go to and fro in the Kingdoms of the Sublime Empire, and even among the Tartars to release the Polish Captives, shall on no account be molested as long as they behave peaceably, but those who offend and injure them shall be punish’d. The Captives detain’d in publick Prisons shall be exchang’d on both sides, and set at Liberty ; and it shall be free for the chief Embassador of the Poles, to make Representations concerning his Captives to the Imperial Throne.<\/p>\n X. Whatsoever the most Serene King of Poland has obtain’d by the Peace stipulated with the Sublime Empire, shall remain in full Force ; Moldavia and Wallachia shall remain in Amity as formerly with the King of Poland, and if any Fugitives from those Countrys come into Poland they shall not be receiv’d. If any steal clandestinely into the Kingdom of Poland, and afterwards are found disturbing and corrupting the Country, such Men, when apprehended, shall be given up; and the same Condition which is so clearly and manifestly declar’d in the former Capitulations, shall be observ’d. In like manner, the Polish Subjects, be they Poles, Cossacks, or of what Nation soever, when they make any Disturbance, shall neither be receiv’d nor protected here, but sent back to their own Countrys ; and all Persons whatsoever that shall go about to disturb the Peace and Friendship now concluded on both sides, shall receive condign Punishment.<\/p>\n XI. All Conditions and Clauses whatsoever declar’d and agreed to in the former Capitulations, which are in no sort contradictory to the Articles of this present Treaty, nor contrary to the free and perpetual Rights of both Dominions, shall henceforwards be carefully observ’d, and those which are contrary, shall, God willing, be made null and void. The Peace and Reconciliation concluded by Articles ingross’d on both sides, in the most perfect and exact manner, between their Majestys, the most August and most Potent Emperor of the Mussulmen and his Heirs, and the most Serene and most Potent King of Poland and his Successors, and the Republick of Poland, shall, by God’s Mercy, remain perpetual, stable, firm and inviolable, and be preserv’d and guarded from all Disturbance, Change, Violation and Confusion, and persevere and be continued firmly and constantly in one and the same Tenor. And that all Hostilitys may be entirely laid aside and suppress’d, notice shall be given with all Speed to the Presidents, Prefects and Governours on the Frontiers, that they take heed that Transgressions be not committed hereafter, and that neither Party damage the other, and that all on both sides carry it sincerely and amicably to one another. And to the end that the Conclusion of this happy Peace may be made known to all Persons, 30 Days are allow’d, after which time no Pretence or Excuse shall be admitted, but they who oppose the Edicts which require a strict Obedience, shall be very severely punish’d. And after the signing of the Instruments on both sides, an Envoy shall first come from Poland to the Resplendent Porte, and according to antient Custom bring the King’s Letters Patent, containing the Ratification of the Articles declar’d in the Instruments, and shall also receive and take with him the Emperor’s Ratifications. And afterwards the Embassador in ordinary, as soon as it can be done with Conveniency, shall proceed according to the antient laudable Method, to the solemn Confirmation of the Articles of the Peace, and to the Perfection of reciprocal Sincerity, and the absolute Determination of mutual Friendship, and to the Disposition of the other things remaining. And therefore the happy Peace concluded in n Articles, according to those Terms, shall be accepted and cultivated on both sides, when the abovemention’d Plenipotentiarys and Commissioners, the Embassadors of the most August Emperor of the Turks, have, by virtue of their Power and Authority, deliver’d a legal and valid Instrument, drawn up in the Turkish Language, as I have, by virtue of my Power and Deputation, deliver’d the Articles sign’d with my own Hand, and seal’d with my Seal, as a lawful and valid Instrument. Done at the Congrefs held under Tents in Carlowitz in Szerem, the 26th Day of January 1699.<\/p>\n (L. S.) Stanislaus Palatine of Posnania, Plenipotentiary, and Embassador Extraordinary from the King of Poland.<\/p>\n In the Name of the Lord whose Mercy is Everlasting, and of the Almighty who bringeth all Things to Light.<\/p>\n Whereas by reason of the Enmity and Ill-will which have subsisted for some Years, between the Sublime Empire and the Republick of Venice, the Subjects were willing that Friendship, Benevolence and the Laws of Good Neighbourhood may be restored, by the Mediation, Insinuation and Recommendation of the most Glorious, among the Great Princes and Republicks of Christendom, William III. King of England, Scotland and Ireland, and the States General of the Netherlands ; and a Congress being held for that purpose at Carlowitz in Szerem, near the Confines, between the Plenipotentiarys of both Partys, when the most illustrious, and most excellent among the Christian Nobility, William Lord Paget, Baron of Beaudesert, his Britannick Majesty’s Embassador Extraordinary, and the Heer James Colyer, Embassador of the Lords the States General of the Netherlands, performed the kind Offices of Mediators ; after the Exchange and Perusal of their respective full Powers according to antient Custom, and after Negotiations and Conferences for a Peace were set on foot, pursuant to the Imperial Mandate, and by virtue of our Authority and Deputation, the most illustrious among the Christian Nobility, Charles Ruzzini, Knight, notwithstanding he had time enough allow’d him to confider of the Articles of the Peace, delayed to sign them, on account of some Difficultys ; and for that Reason the most illustrious and most excellent the Embassadors Plenipotentiary of the Emperor of the Romans, and of the King and Republick of Poland, out of respect to the Preliminarys, settled by the Endeavour of the aforesaid Embassadors Mediators, and by the Consent and Approbation of all the rest, and particularly to the 3d Article for allowing a Fortnight longer for the Signing and Exchanging of the Instruments by the mutual consent of both Partys ; and to the Intent that the Republick of Venice might also be included and comprehended in the Peace concluded by the Divine Favour, they have at length reciprocally agreed with us, by the repeated Offices and Endeavours of the said Embassadors Mediators, between the Sublime Empire and the said Republick, the following 16 Articles, as they are hereafter inserted verbatim.<\/p>\n I. The Morea with all its Citys, Fortresses, Castles, Lands, Villages, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Woods, Ports, and in general, all things else whatsoever which shall be found to be comprehended within the whole Extent of the same Province, and which are now possess’d by the Republick of Venice, shall remain in the Possession and under the Dominion of the said Republick, including the full Circumference of the Country inclosed between the Sea and the Isthmus, in that part where some of the Remains of the antient Wall are still to be seen ; \u00a0so that there shall be no Extension made of the Continent of the Morea into the Terra Firma, beyond the Confines of the said Province.<\/p>\n II. In regard that the Terra Firma is under the Dominion of the Sublime Empire, it shall remain intirely in the Possession of the said Empire, in the same Condition it was in as the beginning of the last War. The Fortress of Lepanto shall be evacuated by the Republick of Venice, and the Castle call’d Romelia shall be demolish’d on that side next Lepanto-j the Fortress ofPrevesa shall be demolish’d in like manner, and the main Land shall be left on that side in its former and entire State.<\/p>\n III. The Island of Sancta Maura with its Fortress, the Head of the Bridge call’d Peraccia, not extending any farther into the main Land ; and the Island of Leucate, annex’d to Sancta Maura, mall remain in the Possession and Lordship of the Republick of Venice.<\/p>\n IV. The Evacuation of Lepanto, and the Demolition of the Castles of Romelia and Trevesa, shall be performed immediately after the Limits of Dalmatia are settled; and in the mean time, to prevent all manner of Hostilitys, and even to cut off all Occasions for such, the Garrisons of those three Places shall not stir out, but keep within the Fortifications thereof, and shall not make any Excursions into the main Land, nor offer at it upon any pretence whatsoever. The Inhabitants thereof shall also be permitted to remain there, or depart from thence as they shall think proper, nor shall the least Violence be offer’d to them.<\/p>\n V. The Use of the Gulphs that lie between the main Land and the Morea, shall be in common to both Powers and both the one and the other of the two Partys oblige themselves to keep them free, and to clear them of all manner of Pirates and mischievous Persons.<\/p>\n VI. The Islands of the Archipelago and of those Seas, shall remain under the Dominion of the Sublime Empire, in the Condition they were in before the Beginning of the last War. No Tributes call’d Caraches shall be exacted from the Subjects of the Republick, nor any Contributions, or other Imports, levy’d, which were introduc’d there during the present War.<\/p>\n VII. The Sublime Empire shall not for the future exact any Pension for the time past or to come, from the Republick of Venice or its Inhabitants, for the Isle of Zante. The Island of Egina with its Fortress, lying near and adjoining to the Morea, and now posses’d by the said Republick, shall remain in the possession of the said Republick, in the Condition it is in at present.<\/p>\n VIII. The Fortresses of Chnin, Sing, Ciclut and Gabetla, situate in Dalmatia, being at present posses’d by the Republick of Venice, shall remain for the future under the Dominion of the said Republick, peaceably to enjoy them. But forasmuch as the Limits of that Province are to be fix’d so exactly and so clearly, that there may be no Dispute about them for the future ; for the Preservation of the Repose and Tranquillity of the Subjects of both Partys, and to prevent all imaginable Differences that may in any manner whatsoever disturb the Peace of the Frontiers, ’tis agreed, that from the Fortress of Chnin to that of Verlica, from Verlica to Sing, from Sing to Duara, otherwise call’d Zaduaria, from thence to Vergoraz, and from thence likewise to the Fortress of Ciclut and Gahella, strait Lines shall be drawn to make the Separation of the Confines ; so that between the said Lines drawing towards the Venetian Dominions and the Sea-Coast, all the Lands and Cantons, with the Castles, Forts, Towers and inclosed Places, shall \u00a0be only possess’d by the Republick aforesaid : And as for the Lands and Cantors that shall be without the said Line, they shall remain in the Possession, and under the Dominion of the Sublime Empire, with all the Castles, Forts, Towers, and inclosed Places comprehended therein ; nor shall it be lawful to extend or lessen the Frontiers on either side. The said Lines shall be mark’d out clearly and distinctly, according to the Situation of the Places, by means of the Hills and Woods, or of the Rivers and Currents; and where the Place shall not evidently distinguish the said Limits, they shall be mark’d out by Ditches, Stakes and Pillars, as the Commissioners appointed by both Partys to regulate the Limits aforesaid in concert, shall judge convenient. And to the end that the said Fortresses which are to remain in the Possession of the Republick, may have some convenient Space of Territory before them, the Commissioners shall mark out about the Fortresses of Chnin, Verlica, Sing, Duara, Vergeraz, and Ciclut, such a space of Ground as may be march ‘d in an hour, in a strait Line or Semi-Circle as the Ground will permit. The Fortress of Chnin shall present her Flank on that fide next Croatia, as far as the Emperor’s Frontiers, without doing any Prejudice to the three Potentates whose Confines shall join to the said Limits ; but they shall be always oblig’d inviolably to observe the Right which belongs to each of the said three Potentates, according to the Agreements of this Universal Peace. Both Partys shall be equally bound to observe the said Line ; and if it shou’d happen that in the Neighbourhood of the said Line, or in the Line itself, there shou’d be any Fortress depending upon the Sublime Empire, the Territory situate behind that Place shall remain intire to the Empire ; and in Front a space of Ground shall be mark’d out in the Circumference of the said Line, and which shall also have the Extent of an Hour’s March. As for the Fortress of Ciclut there shall be in like manner assign’d to it in Front, a space of Ground of an Hour’s March 5 and towards the Flank there shall be a space of two Hours March, without the Line, drawing out a strait Line to the Sea. And when the Limits are once fix’d, and the Bounds placed, and Territorys separated so as to remain in manner and form aforesaid, in the possession of both Partys, they shall be inviolably observ’d without the least Alteration ; and if ever it happens that any Person shou’d have the Boldness to violate the said Frontiers, or to go beyond the Bounds, or that the Officers themselves shou’d fail in their Duty and necessary Care in that particular, by not punishing the Offenders according to their Demerits, they shall themselves be severely punish’d on both sides. And in cafe the Commissioners shou’d meet with any Difficultys, or shou’d not agree among themselves, they shall faithfully and exactly inform their Masters thereof, to the end that such Differences may be amicably adjusted by the good Offices and Mediation of those who represent his Imperial Majesty, and the Lords Mediators, at the Ottoman Porte.<\/p>\n IX. The Territory and Dependences of the Signiory of Ragusa, fhall be annex’d to the Territorys and Cantons of the Sublime Empire ; and all Obstacles that hinder the Union and Communication of the Lands of the said Signiory with the Lands of the said Empire, shall be remov’d.<\/p>\n X. Castelnovo and Risano, which are in the Neighbourhood of Cattaro, being actually in the Possession and under the Dominion of the Republick of Venice, it shall remain in the peaceable Enjoyment of the laid Places and their Territorys. Which is likewise to be understood of any other Fortress whatsoever situate in that Canton, and of which the said Republick is in actual Possession. And the Commissioners who shall be deputed on both sides, shall be chose out of Persons of known Probity, to the end that not being sway’d by Passion or private Interest, they may determine this important Affair with all possible Equity, by making a Separation of the Territorys of the Country, and marking them out by Tokens so evident, as to cut off all occasions or Disturbance and Contention between the two Partys. But Advice shall be given on the same side, that the Communication of the Lands of Ragusa with those of the Ottoman Empire must not be interrupted.<\/p>\n XI. And forasmuch as the fixing the Limits of both Partys ought to begin in Dalmatia, and on the side of Cattaro, as foon as the Weather favours, the Commissioners deputed for that End, shall give reciprocal notice of their Meeting, and shall meet in a Place proper and convenient for such Business, with an equal number of armed Attendants, Men of Peace, and not given to create Trouble ; and the said Commissioners shall, with the Help of God, begin their Function and Conferences on the first Day of the Equinox, that is to say 12\/22 of March this present Year : and they shall with all possible Care and Diligence employ themselves in distinguishing the Confines of both Partys ; in such manner that they may entirely finish the Separation in two Months, or sooner if possible.<\/p>\n XII. And whereas both the said Partys have mutually express’d an ardent Desire to be united to one another, by a firm and constant Friendship, and to procure the Tranquillity of their Subjects, they must naturally have the greater Aversion to such ill-minded Persons as disturb the Tranquillity of the Frontiers by Robberys, and Hostilitys of other kinds : Therefore no Shelter or Protection shall be given on either side to such Fugitives, of what Quality soever they are ; bur, on the contrary, they shall be pursued, apprehended and imprison’d, that they may have condign Punishment for a warning to others : and for the future, the giving Support or Protection to People of this fort shall be prohibited.<\/p>\n XIII. Both Partys shall be permitted to repair and fortify the Fortresses in their Possession, but not to build any new ones upon the Frontiers, nor to rebuild those which have been demolish’d by the Republick of Venice on the Confines of the Terra Firma : The Subjects also of both Partys are permitted to build Towns and Villages every where, on condition that they live sociably like good Neighbours and Friends, and keep strictly within their own Bounds. And if any Difference happen among them, the Governours of the Frontiers on both sides shall be amicably inform’d thereof, to the end that they may with the greatest Equity prevent all Cause of Complaint.<\/p>\n XIV. As for what concerns Religion, the release and exchange of Slaves, and matter of Commerce, the conditions of the last Treaty shall be observed according to their Form and Tenour, and the Ambaffador of the Republick shall have leave to make new Instances to the Imperial Throne upon this Head. As to Traffick, the Sacred Imperial Edicts formerly granted to this Republick, are confirm’d by the present Treaty of Peace ; and Trade shall be carry’d on in the same manner as it was before the last War, and the Venetian Merchants shall enjoy all the Privileges that were ever granted them heretofore.<\/p>\n XV. From the Day of signing the Treaty concluded between the Plenipotentiarys of the Sublime Empire and the Republick:, all Hostilitys shall cease both by Land and Sea, and the Subjects of both Partys shall live in good Friendship and Correspondence : And to the end that the Governours of the Frontiers may be inform’d of this Suspenflon of Arms, the Partys are agreed on a Term of thirty Days for the Provinces of Bosnia, Albania and Dalmatia, and forty Days for the Isle of Candia, the Morea, and other Frontiers on the same Coast ; during which Space of Time, the Sublime Empire and the Republick shall each on his part do all that is possible to hinder the Contravention of any one of the Articles. Moreover, a sincere and general Amnesty is to be allow’d to the Subjects of both Partys, for any Action or Crime committed during the War, which shall be entirely bury’d in Oblivion; and no Person shall on that account be prosecuted, molested or punish’d for the future as a Delinquent.<\/p>\n XVI. It shall be determin’d how long the present Treaty between the Sublime Empire and the Republick shall continue, when the Instruments of it are deliver’d, and when the Plenipotentiarys of both Partys proceed to the immediate signing of the said Treaty, in the Form and Manner that shall be declar’d afterwards. And they shall in like manner agree to the Conventions that shall be thought necessary, for establishing the Friendship and perfect Correspondence of the Partys more and more.<\/p>\n After all ’tis stipulated and agreed by this present Instrument, that if while we are here, the said Plenipotentiary of Venice shall resolve to accept and Sign it, he may immediately, and without delay, copy the whole Instrument, and confirm it with his own Hand and Seal, and deliver it to us, and at the same time receive from us the Instrument confirm’d with our Seals and Subscriptions ; provided nevertheless, that the abovemention’d Articles be not violated or alter’d, or restrain’d, or magnify’d, and that only those Things be added by mutual Consent, which seem to tend more to the renewing the Offices of Friendship, without changing the Articles of the Places and Limits.<\/p>\n But if the said Ambassador Plenipotentiary of the Republick of Venice shou’d remain here when we are going away, without having come to any Determination, the said Republick is allow’d by virtue of that Instrument, the space of thirty Days, from the Conclusion of the Peace, to ratify the said Instrument, to transmit their Ratification to the Ambassadors Mediators, to extend the Articles to reciprocal Offices of Friendship, and compleatly to finish the present Treaty at Vienna, by their Ambassador Plenipotentiary residing there, within the space of two Months.<\/p>\n But if the said Republick does not acquiesce in the above recited Articles, even while the illustrious Mediation continues at Vienna, and while either of the Emperor’s Plenipotentiarys is present, the Ambassadors of both Partys may reassume and direct this Treaty ; on these Conditions nevertheless, that the fundamental Instrument, now stipulated once for all by the mutual Consent of the Partys, may be religiously and inviolably observ’d by both, equally alike in all things ; nor shall the Articles in this present Instrument mention’d be call’d in question, nor shall one Party take more Advantage of them than the other. Moreover, within the space of six Months, from the Day that the solemn Embassy arrives at Vienna from the Sublime Empire, according to the Terms of the Preliminary and Fundamental Instrument so often mention’d, the Venetian Ambassador Plenipotentiary at Vienna shall finish his Treaty, and to this end exchange the authentick Instruments necessary for both Partys ; and consequently the Venetian Republick shall be included in this happy Peace, the Cessation of Arms being observed in the mean time on both sides, according to the Reason declar’d in the Articles above inserted, and all manner of Hostilitys and Offences being stopp’d by Land and Sea, and no Contravention of the Articles hereby establish’d being admitted. But if this neither be pleasing to the abovenam’d Republick, it shall rest upon the said Republick, after the Term abovemention’d, to manage the Affair either of War or Peace by themselves, and not to lay the Blame upon any but themselves. And whereas the abovemention’d Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiarys of his Imperial Majesty, and the King and Republick of Poland, in presence of the Ambassadors Plenipotentiary Mediators, have deliver’d to us the authentick and lawful Instrument drawn up in the Latin Tongue, confirm’d with their Hands and Seals, by virtue of the Authority, and Power, and Deputation to them granted ; we also, by virtue of our Power, Authority and Deputation, have deliver’d this valid and legal Instrument, confirm’d with our Hands and Seals. Done the 24th of the Month call’d Reciep, in the Year of the Hegira 1110.<\/p>\n Sign’d,<\/p>\n(L. S.) MEHEMEMET RAMI, Great Chancellor. BE it known to all and every one whom it concerns, That after a Declaration of Peace was made by the Mediation of the most Serene and most Potent Prince and Lord, William III. King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, and the High and Mighty States General of the United Netherlands, for restoring Tranquillity, which had been disturb’d several Years by a War, and for renewing the Friendship between the Sublime Ottoman Emperor and the most Serene Republick of Venice, a Congress was appointed for that end, between the Plenipotentiarys of both Partys at Carlowitz in Szerem, by the Intervention of the most illustrious and the most excellent Lords, the Lord William Paget, Baron of Beaudefert, and the Heer James Colyer, both Ambassadors at the Ottoman Porte, the former from the most Serene King of Great Britain, and the latter from the High and Mighty States of the United Netherlands, who most diligently and faithfully perform’d the mediatorial Office of Ambassadors Plenipotentiary for restoring this Peace, and after the Exchange of the full Powers on both sides, the Congress was continued. But the most illustrious, and most excellent Lord, Charles Ruzzini Knt. Ambassador Plenipotentiary of the said most Serene Republick, after various Conferences held concerning a Peace, even tho he had time enough and to spare for consideration of the Articles, yet by reason of several Difficultys which occurr’d to him, cou’d not proceed in the Treaty : We therefore the underwritten Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of his Sacred Imperial Majesty, and of his Royal Majesty of Poland, perceiving the Expiration of the last Term granted near at hand, and the immediate Necessity of bringing the Treaty to an absolute Conclusion, in regard to the Preliminarys settled at this Congress by the Endeavours of the said Lords the Mediators, and by the Consent of all of us, especially in regard to the Reason declar’d in the 3d Article, having a desire to promote the Peace of the most Serene Republick of Venice, have undertaken the Treaty in their Name ; and in regard to the solemn Foundation of this Peace, heretofore establish’d inviolably between his Imperial Majesty, the Republick of Venice, and the Sublime Empire, have in the best manner we cou’d, concluded a Treaty with the most illustrious and most excellent the Lords Ambassadors Plenipotentiary of the Ottoman Porte, viz. the Lord Mehemet Effendi, Chancellor of the Sublime Ottoman Empire, and the Lord Mauro Cordato, of the Noble Family of Scarlati, late Chancellor of the said Empire, and private Secretary, containing sixteen Articles as follows.<\/p>\nFiat Insertio.<\/em>\n After all ’tis further agreed, with the abovemention’d Ambassadors of the Sublime Ottoman Empire, that as long as the said Lords the Ambassadors stay here, if the Venetian Ambassador resolve to accept of the Articles above inserted, he mall presently reduce them into the Form of an Instrument, and after having sign’d and seal’d it, deliver it to the Ottoman Plenipotentiarys, and receive the Duplicate of it sign’d and seal’d in like manner by them ; on Condition nevertheless, that it shall not be lawful to change, restrain, amplify or alter the abovemention’d Articles with respect : to the Limits and Places, nor in any other respect, but in those things only which shall seem to appertain to the Offices of greater Friendship. But if when the Lords Ambassadors of the Sublime Ottoman Empire go away, it happens that the said Lord Ambassador of Venice be still undetermin’d, then it shall be lawful for the said Republick of Venice, within thirty Days after the Conclusion of this happy general Peace, to ratify this Instrument, to transmit their Ratification to the Lords the Ambassadors Mediators, to extend the Articles to reciprocal Offices of Friendship, and compleatly to finish the present Treaty at Vienna, by their Ambassador Plenipotentiary residing there, within the space of two Months.<\/p>\n But if the said Republick does not acquiesce in the above recited Articles, even while the illustrious Mediation continues at Vienna, and while one or other of the Imperial Ministers Plenipotentiary be present, the Ambassadors of both Partys may reassume and direct this Treaty : on these Conditions nevertheless, that the Preliminary and Fundamental Instrument heretofore Stipulated, by the mutual Consent of the Partys, may religiously and inviolably be observ’d by both equally alike in all Things ; nor shall the Articles of Peace recited in this present Instrument be called in question, nor shall one Party take more Advantage of them than the other.<\/p>\n Moreover, within the space of six Months, from the Day that the solemn Embassy of the Sublime Ottoman Empire arrives at Vienna, according to the Terms of the Preliminary and Fundamental Instrument so often mention’d, the Venetian Ambassador Plenipotentiary at Vienna shall finish his Treaty, and moreover exchange the authentick Instruments necessary for both Partys ; \u00a0and consequently the Republick of Venice shall be included in this happy Peace, a Cessation of Arms being observ’d in the mean time on both sides, according to the Reason declar’d in the Articles above inserted, and all manner of Hostilitys and Offences being stop’d by Land and Sea, and no Contravention of the Articles hereby establish’d being admitted. But if neither the abovenam’d Republick can bring its Treaty to a Conclusion within the Terms abovemention’d, it shall rest upon the said Republick to take care of their own Affairs. And whereas the abovemention’d Ambassadors Plenipotentiarys of the Sublime Ottoman Empire have, by virtue of their Power, Authority and Deputation, deliver’d to us the authentick and lawful Instrument, confirm’d with their Hands and Seals ; we also the Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiarys of his Imperial Majesty, and his Majesty the King of Poland, by virtue of his Imperial Majesty’s, and the most Serene King of Poland, \u00a0general full Powers, and the Lords Ambassadors Plenipotentiarys Mediators being also present, and witnessing it, have likewise confirm’d the said Instrument of the Conditions of the Peace (promoted, as above, by our Officers for the famous Republick of Venice) with our Hands and Seals. Done at the Congress of Carlowitz in Szerem under the Tent, Jan. 26, 1699.<\/p>\n(L. S.) Wolfgangus C. ab Otting. We attest and confirm, by our Hands and Seals, that the foregoing Instruments were done, concluded and confirm’d in presence of us, by virtue of our publick Function as Mediators, the Year and Day abovementioned.<\/p>\n(L. S.) WILLIAM PAGET. SLYVESTER VALERIO, by the Grace of God, Doge of Venice, &c. We make known and certify, that on the 26th Day of January 1699, according to the Computation of the Empire, an Instrument of the following Tenour was concluded in the Congress at Carlowitz.<\/p>\nAfter the inserting of the said Instrument.<\/em>\n We therefore, and our Senate, do altogether approve of, and ratify the said sixteen Articles of the Peace, between the most Serene Mustapha Emperor of the Turks, and our Republick, promising on the Word of the aforesaid Republick, inviolably to observe all and singular the Articles, and not to suffer them, if we can help it, to be violated by others. In Witness whereof, we acknowledge these Presents to be our Act and Deed, have sign’d them with our Hand, and confirm’d them with our Ducal Seal, at the Ducal Palace on the 7th of February 1699.<\/p>\nM.V. Whatley, Samuel.\u00a0A General Collection of Treatys of Peace and Commerce, Manifestos, Declarations of War, and other Publick Papers, from the End of the Reign of Queen Anne to the Year 1731, Vol. IV.\u00a0<\/em>London: J.J. and P. Knapton et al., 1732. pp. 290-322.<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\tThe Treaty of K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Kaynarca (1774)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExpand<\/i><\/a>\nTreaty of Peace (K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Kaynarca), 1774 ART. I. From the present time all the hostilities and enmities which have hitherto prevailed shall cease for ever, and all hostile acts and enterprises committed on either side, whether by force of arms or in any other manner, shall be buried in an eternal oblivion, without vengeance being taken for them in any way whatever; but, on the contrary, there shall always be a perpetual, constant, and inviolable peace, as well by sea as by land. In like manner there shall be cultivated between the two High Contracting Parties, Her Majesty the Empress of all the Russias and His Highness, their succes\u00adsors and heirs, as well as between the two empires, their states, territories, subjects, and inhabitants, a sincere union and a perpetual and inviolable friendship, with a careful accomplishment and maintenance of these Articles; so that neither of the two parties shall, in future, undertake with respect to the other any hostile act or design whatsoever, either secretly or openly. And in consequence of the renewal of so sincere a friendship, the two Contracting Parties grant respectively an amnesty and general pardon to all such of their subjects, without distinction, who may have been guilty of any crime against one or other of the two Parties; delivering and setting at liberty those who are in the gallies or in prison; permitting all banished persons or exiles to return home, and promising to restore to them, after the peace, all the honours and property which they before enjoyed, and not to subject them, nor allow others to subject them, with impunity, to any insult, loss, or injury under any pretext whatso\u00adever; but that each and every of them may live under the safeguard and protection of the laws and customs of his native country in the same manner as his native fellow countrymen.<\/p>\n II.\u00a0If, after the conclusion of the Treaty and the exchange of the ratifications, any subjects of the two Empires, having committed any capital offence, or having been guilty of disobedience or of treason, should endeavour to conceal themselves, or seek an asylum in the territories of one of the two Powers, they must not be received or sheltered there under any pretext, but must be immediately delivered up, or at least expelled, from the States of the Power whither they had escaped, in order that, on account of such criminals, there should not arise any coolness or useless dispute between the two Empires, with the exception, however, of those who, in the Empire of Russia, shall have embraced the Christian religion, and, in the Ottoman Empire, the Mahometan religion. In like manner, should any subjects of the two Empires, whether Christians or Mahometans, having committed any crime or offence, or for any reason whatsoever, pass from one Empire into the other, they shall be immediately delivered up, so soon as a requisition to that effect is made.<\/p>\n III. All the Tartar peoples – those of the Crimea, of the Budjiac, of the Kuban, the Edissans, Geambouiluks and Editschkuls\u00ad shall, without any exception, be acknowl\u00adedged by the two Empires as free nations, and entirely independent of every foreign Power, governed by their own Sovereign, of the race of Ghengis Khan, elected and raised to the throne by all the Tartar peo\u00adples; which Sovereign shall govern them according to their ancient laws and usages, being responsible to no foreign Power whatsoever; \u00a0for which reason, neither the Court of Russia nor the Ottoman Porte shall in\u00adterfere, under any pretext whatever, with the election of the said Khan, or in the domestic, political, civil and internal affairs of the same; but, on the contrary, they shall acknowledge and consider the said Tartar nation, in its political and civil state, upon the same footing as the other Powers who are governed by themselves, and are de\u00ad pendent upon God alone. As to the cere\u00admonies of religion, as the Tartars profess the same faith as the Mahometans, they shall regulate themselves, with respect to His Highness, in his capacity of Grand Caliph of Mahometanism, according to the precepts prescribed to them by their law, without compromising, nevertheless, the stability of their political and civil liberty. Russia leaves to this Tartar nation, with the exception of the fortresses of Kertsch and Jenicale (with their districts and ports, which Russia retains for herself), all the towns, fortresses, dwellings, territories, and ports which it has conquered in Crimea and in Kuban; the country situated between the rivers Berda, Konskie, Vodi, and the Dnieper, as well as all that situated as far as the frontier of Poland between the Boug and the Dniester, excepting the fortress of Oczakow, with its ancient territory, which shall belong, as heretofore. to the Sublime Porte, and it promises to withdraw its troops from their possessions immediately after the conclusion and exchange of the Treaty of Peace. The Sublime Ottoman Porte engages, in like manner, on its part, to abandon all right whatsoever which it might have over the fortresses, towns, habitations, &c., in Crimea, in Kuban, and in the island [sic] of Taman; to maintain in those places no garrison nor other armed forces, ceding these States to the Tartars in the same manner as the Court of Russia has done, that is to say, in full power and in absolute and independent sovereignty. In like manner the Sublime Porte engages, in the most solemn manner, and promises neither to introduce nor maintain, in future, any garrison or armed forces whatsoever in the above-mentioned towns, fortresses, lands, and habitations, nor, in the interior of those States, any intendant or military agent, of whatsoever denomination, but to leave all the Tartars in the same perfect liberty and independence in which the Empire of Russia leaves them.<\/p>\n IV.\u00a0It is conformable to the natural right of every Power to make, in its own country, such dispositions as it may consider to be expedient: in consequence whereof, there is respectively reserved to the two Empires a perfect and unrestricted liberty of constructing anew in their respective States, and within their frontiers, in such localities as shall be deemed advisable, every kind of fortresses, towns, habitations, edifices, and dwellings, as well as of repairing and rebuilding the old fortresses, towns, habitations, &c.<\/p>\n V. After the conclusion of this happy peace, and the renewal of a sincere and neighbourly friendship, the Imperial Court of Russia shall always have, henceforth, at the Sublime Porte, a Minister of the second rank, that is to say, an Envoy or Minister Plenipotentiary; the Sublime Porte shall show to him, in his official character, all the attentions and respect which are observed towards the Ministers of the most distin\u00adguished Powers; and upon all public occa\u00adsions the said Minister shall immediately follow the Emperor’s Minister, if he be of the same rank as the latter; but if he be of a different rank, that is to say, either su\u00adperior or inferior, then the Russian Minister shall immediately follow the Ambassador of Holland, and, in his absence, that of Venice.<\/p>\n VI. If any individual in the actual service of the Russian Minister during his stay at the Sublime Porte, having been guilty of theft or having committed any crime or act liable to punishment, should, for the purpose of escaping the penalty of the law, become Turk; although he cannot be prevented from so doing, yet after he has un\u00addergone the punishment be deserves, all the articles stolen shall be restored\u00a0in toto<\/em>, according to the specification of the Minister. But those who, being intoxicated, might be desirous of adopting the turban, must not be allowed so to do until after their fit of drunkenness is over, and they have come to their right senses; and even then, their final declaration shall not be taken, unless in the presence of an interpreter sent by the Min\u00adister, and of some Musslman free from the suspicion of partiality.<\/p>\n VII. The Sublime Porte promises to protect constantly the Christian religion and its churches, and it also allows the Ministers of the Imperial Court of Russia to make, upon all occasions, representations, as well in favour of the new church at Constantinople, of which mention will be made in Article XIV, as on behalf of its officiat\u00ading ministers, promising to take such representations into due consideration, as being made by a confidential functionary of a neighbouring and sincerely friendly Power.<\/p>\n VIII. The subjects of the Russian Em\u00adpire, as well laymen as ecclesiastics, shall have full liberty and permission to visit the holy city of Jerusalem, and other places deserving of attention. No\u00a0charatsch\u00a0<\/em>[ie.,\u00a0hara\u00e7<\/em>\u00a0or military-exemption tax], con\u00adtribution, duty, or other tax, shall be exacted from those pilgrims and travellers by any one whomsoever, either at Jerusalem or elsewhere, or on the road; but they shall be provided with such passports and firmans as are given to the subjects of the other friendly Powers. During their sojourn in the Ottoman Empire, they shall not suffer the least wrong or injury; but, on the con\u00adtrary, shall be under the strictest protection of the laws.<\/p>\n IX. The interpreters attached to the Russian Ministers resident at Constanti\u00adnople, of whatever nation they may be, being employed upon State affairs, and consequently in the service of both Empires, must be regarded and treated with every degree of kindness; and they shall be subjected to no ill-treatment on account of the business with which they may be entrusted by their principals.<\/p>\n X. If between the signing of these Articles of Peace and the orders which shall thereupon be dispatched by the Command\u00aders of the two respective armies, an engage\u00adment should anywhere take place, neither party shall be offended thereat, nor shall it be productive of any consequences, every acquisition made thereby being restored, and no advantage shall accrue therefrom to one party or the other.<\/p>\n XI. For the convenience and advantage of the two Empires, there shall be a free and unimpeded navigation for the merchantships belonging to the two Contracting Powers, in all the seas which wash their shores; the Sublime Porte grants to Russian merchant-vessels, namely, such as are universally employed by the other Powers for commerce and in the ports, a free passage from the Black Sea into the White Sea, and reciprocally from the White Sea into the Black Sea, as also the power of entering all the ports and harbours situated either on the sea-coasts, or in the passages and channels which join those seas. In like manner, the Sublime Porte allows Russian subjects to trade in its States by land as well as by water and upon the Danube in their ships, in conformity with what has been specified above in this Article, with all the same privileges and ad\u00ad vantages as are enjoyed in its States by the most friendly nations, whom the Sublime Porte favours most in trade, such as the French and the English; and the capitula\u00adtions of those two nations and others shall, just as if they were here inserted word for word, serve as a rule, under all circum\u00ad stances and in every place, for whatever concerns commerce as well as Russian merchants, who upon paying the same duties may import and export all kinds of goods, and disembark their merchandize at every port and harbour as well upon the Black as upon the other Seas, Constantinople being expressly included in the number.<\/p>\n While granting in the above manner to the respective subjects the freedom of commerce and navigation upon all waters with\u00ad out exception, the two Empires, at the same time, allow merchants to stop within their territories for as long a time as their affairs require, and promise them the same security and liberty as are enjoyed by the subjects of other friendly Courts. And in order to be consistent throughout, the Sublime Porte also allows the residence of Consuls and Vice-Consuls in every place where the Court of Russia may consider it expedient to establish them, and they shall be treated upon a perfect footing of equality with the Consuls of the other friendly Powers. It permits them to have interpreters called Baratli, that is, those who have patents, providing them with Imperial patents, and causing them to enjoy the same prerogatives as those in the service of the said French, English, and other nations. Similarly, Russia permits the subjects of the Sublime Porte to trade in its dominions, by sea and by land, with the same prerogatives and advantages as are enjoyed by the most friendly nations, and upon paying the accustomed duties. In case of accident happening to the vessels, the two Empires are bound respectively to render them the same assistance as is given in similar cases to other friendly nations; and all necessary things shall be furnished to them at the ordinary prices.<\/p>\n XII. When the Imperial Court of Russia shall have the intention of making any Commercial Treaty with the regencies of Africa, as Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, the Sublime Porte engages to employ its power and influence in order to accomplish the views of the above-named Court in this respect, and to guarantee, as regards those regencies, all the conditions which shall have been stipulated in those Treaties.<\/p>\n XIII. The Sublime [Porte] promises to employ the sacred title of the Empress of all the Russias in all public acts and letters, as well as in all other cases, in the Turkish language, that is to say, “Temamen Roussielerin Padischag.”<\/p>\n XIV. After the manner of the other Powers, permission is given to the High Court of Russia, in addition to the chapel built in the Minister’s residence, to erect in one of the quarters of Galata, in the street called Bey Oglu, a public church of the Greek ritual, which shall always be under the protection of the Ministers of that Empire, and secure from all Coercion and outrage.<\/p>\n XV. Although, according to the manner in which the boundaries of the two Contracting Powers are arranged, there is every reason to hope that the respective subjects shall no longer find any occasion for serious differences and disputes amongst them\u00ad selves, nevertheless, at all events to guard against whatever might occasion a coolness or cause a misunderstanding, the two Empires mutually agree that all such cases of disagreement shall be investigated by the Governors and Commanders of the frontiers, or by Commissioners appointed for that purpose, who shall be bound, after making the necessary inquiries, to render justice where it is due, without the least loss of time: with the express condition that events of this nature shall never serve as a pretext for the slightest alteration in the friendship and good feeling re-established by this Treaty.<\/p>\n XVI. The Empire of Russia restores to the Sublime Porte the whole of Bessarabia, with the cities of Ackermann, Kilija, Ismail, together with the towns and villages, and all contained in that Province; in like manner it restores to it the fortress of Bender. Similarly the Empire of Russia restores to the Sublime Porte the two Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, together with all the fortresses, cities, towns, villages, and all which they contain, and the Sublime Porte receives them upon the following conditions, solemnly promising to keep them religiously:<\/p>\n XVII. The Empire of Russia restores to the Sublime Porte all the islands of the Archipelago which are under its dependence; and the Sublime Porte, on its part, promises:<\/p>\n XVIII. The Castle of Kinburn, situated at the mouth of the Dnieper, with a proportionate district along the left bank of the Dnieper, and the corner which forms the desert between the Bug and the Dnieper,remains under the full, perpetual, and incontestable dominion of the Empire of Russia.<\/p>\n XIX. The fortresses of Jenicale and Kertsch situated in the peninsula of Crimea, with their ports and all therein contained, and moreover with their districts, commencing from the Black Sea, and following the ancient frontier of Kertsch as far as the place called Bugak, and from Bugak ascending in a direct line as far as the Sea of Azow, shall remain under the full, perpetual, and incontestable dominion of the Empire of Russia.<\/p>\n XX. The city of Azow, with its district, and the boundaries laid down in the Conventions made in 1700, that is to say in 1113 between the Governor Tolstoi and Hassan Bacha, Governor of Atschug, shall belong in perpetuity to the Empire of Russia.<\/p>\n XXI. The two Cabardes, namely, the Great and Little, on account of their proximity to the Tartars, are more nearly connected with the Khans of Crimea; for which reason it must remain with the Khan of Crimea to consent, in concert with his Council and the ancients of the Tatar nation, to these countries becoming subject to the Imperial Court of Russia.<\/p>\n XXII. The two Empires have agreed to annihilate and leave in an eternal oblivion all the Treaties and Conventions heretofore made between the Two States, including therein the Convention of Belgrade, with all those subsequent to it; and never to put forth any claim grounded upon the said Conventions, excepting, however, the one made in 1700 between Governor Tolstoi and Hassan Bacha, Governor of Atschug, the subject of the boundaries of the district of Azow and of the line of demarcation of the frontier of Kuban, which shall remain invariably such as it has heretofore been.<\/p>\n XXIII. The fortresses which are standing in a part of Georgia and of Mingrelia, as Bagdadgick, Kutatis, and Scheherban, conquered by the Russian arms, shall be considered by Russia as belonging to those whom they were formerly dependent; so that if, in ancient times, or for a very long period, they have act ally been under the dominion of the Sublime Porte, they shall be considered as belonging to it; and after the exchange of the present Treaty the Russian troops shall, at the time agreed upon, quit the said Provinces of Geo g1a and Mingrelia. On its part, the Sublime Porte engages, conformably to the contents of the present Article, to grant a general amnesty to all those in the said countries who, in the course of the present war, shall have offended it in any manner whatsoever. It renounces solemnly and for ever to exact tributes of children, male and female, and every other kind of tax. It engages to consider such of these people only as its subjects as shall have belonged to it from all antiquity; to leave and restore all the castles and fortified places which have been under the dominion of the Georgians and Mingrelians, to their own exclusive custody and government; as also not to molest in any manner the religion, monasteries, and churches; not to hinder the repairing of dilapidated ones, nor the building of new ones; and it promises that these people shall not be oppressed on the part of theGovernor of Tschildirsk, and other chiefs and officers, by exactions which despoil them of their property. But as the said people are subjects of the Sublime Porte, Russia must not, in future, intermeddle in any manner in their affairs, nor molest them in any way.<\/p>\n XXIV. Immediately upon the signing and confirmation of these Articles, all the Russian troops which are in Bulgaria on the right bank of the Danube shall withdraw, and within one month, reckoning from the day of the signature, they shall cross to the other side of the river. When all the troops shall have passed the Danube, the castle of Hirsow shall be delivered up to the Turks, the said castle being evacuated to them when all the Russian troops shall have completely passed over to the left bank of that river. After which, the evacuation of Wallachia and Bessarabia shall be effected simultaneously, the term of two months being allowed for that operation. After all the Russian troops shall have quitted these two Provinces, the fortresses of Giurgewo and afterwards Brahilow on the one side (of the river), and on the other, the town of Ismail and the fortresses of Kilia and Akkerman, shall be delivered up to the Turkish troops, from all which places the Russian garrisons shall withdraw for the purpose of following the other troops, so that for the complete evacuation of the said Provinces the term of three months shall be assigned. Lastly, the Imperial troops of Russia shall, two months afterwards, withdraw from Moldavia, and shall pass over to the left bank of the Dniester; thus, the evacuation of all the aforesaid countries shall be effected within five months, reckoning from the above\u00ad mentioned signing of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace between the two contracting Empires. When all the Russian troops shall have passed to the left bank of the Dniester, the fortresses of Chotzum and of Bender shall be given up to the Turkish troops; upon this condition, however, that the castle of Kinburn with the district belonging to it, and the desert situated between the Dnieper and the Boug, shall have been already restored in full, perpetual and incontestable sovereignty to the Empire of \u00a0Russia, conformably to Article XVIII of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace between the two Empires.<\/p>\n As to the islands of the Archipelago, they shall be left, as heretofore, under the legitimate dominion of the Ottoman Porte, by the fleet and the Imperial troops of Russia, as soon as the arrangements and peculiar necessities of the fleet shall permit, with regard to which it is not possible to assign here the precise time. And the Sublime Porte, in order to accelerate as much as possible the departure of the said fleet, already engages, as a friendly Power, to furnish it, as far as it can, with every necessary of which it may be in need. During the stay of the Imperial troops of Russia in the Provinces to be restored to the Sublime Porte, the government and police shall remain there in the same vigour as at present and since the conquest, and the Porte must take no part whatever therein, during the whole of this time, nor until the entire withdrawal of all the troops. Up to the last day of their quitting these countries, the Russian troops shall be provided with all necessaries, as well provisions as other articles, in the same manner as they have hitherto been furnished with them.<\/p>\n The troops of the Sublime Porte must not enter the fortresses which shall be restored to it, nor shall that Power commence to exercise its authority in the countries which shall be given up to it, until at each place or country which shall have been evacuated by the Russian troops, the Commander of those troops shall have given notice thereof to the officer appointed for that purpose on the part of the Ottoman Porte. The Russian troops may, at their pleasure, empty their magazines of ammunition and provisions which are in the fortresses, towns and wherever else they may be, and they shall leave nothing in the fortresses restored to the Sublime Porte but such Turkish artillery as is actually found there. The inhabitants in all the countries restored to the Sublime Porte, of whatever state and condition they may be, and who are in the Imperial service of Russia, have the liberty, besides the term allowed of one year, as assigned in the Articles XVI and XVII of the Treaty of Peace, of quitting the country and withdrawing with their families and property in the rear of the Russian troops; and conformably to the above-mentioned Articles, the Sublime Porte engages not to oppose their departure, neither then nor during the entire term of one year.<\/p>\n XXV. All the prisoners of war and slaves in the two Empires, men and women, of whatever rank and dignity they may be, with the exception of those who, in the Empire of Russia shall have voluntarily quitted Mahometanism in order to embrace the Christian religion, or in the Ottoman Empire shall have voluntarily abandoned Christianity in order to embrace the Mahometan faith, shall be, immediately after the exchange of the ratifications of this Treaty, and without any excuse whatever, be [sic] set at liberty on either side, and restored and delivered up without ransom or redemption money; in like manner, all the Christians fallen into slavery, such as Poles, Moldavians, Wallachians, Peloponnesians, inhabitants of the islands, and Georgians, all, without the least exception, must be set at liberty without ransom or redemption money. Similarly all Russian subjects who, since the conclusion of this happy peace, shall by any accident have fallen into slavery, and who shall be found in the Ottoman Empire, must be set at liberty and restored in like manner; all which the Empire of Russia promises also to observe, on its part, towards the Ottoman Porte and its subjects.<\/p>\n XXVI.\u00a0After having received in Crimea and in Oczakow intelligence of the signature of these Articles, the Commander of the Russian army in Crimea, and the Governor of Oczakow must immediately communicate with each on the subject, and within two months after the signing of the Treaty send, respectively, persons duly ac\u00ad credited for effecting, on the one hand, the cession, and on the other the taking possession, of the Castle of Kinburn, with the desert, as stipulated in Article XVIII above; and this the said Commissioners must absolutely effect within two months from the day of their meeting, in order that within four months, or even sooner, reckoning from the signing of the Treaty, the whole of this business be accomplished, and immediately after the said execution thereof, notice of the same shall be given to their Excellencies the Field-Marshal and the Grand Vizier.<\/p>\n XXVII. But in order that the present peace and sincere friendship between the two Empires be so much the more strongly and authentically sealed and confirmed, there shall be sent on both sides solemn and extraordinary Embassies with the Imperial ratifications signed, confirmatory of the Treaty of Peace, at such time as shall be agreed upon by both the High Contracting Parties. The Ambassadors shall be met on the frontiers in the same manner, and they shall be received and treated with the same honours and ceremonies as are observed in the respective Embassies between the Ottoman Porte and the most respectable Powers. And as a testimonial of friend\u00ad ship, there shall be mutually sent through the medium of the said Ambassadors presents which shall be proportionate to the dignity of their Imperial Majesties.<\/p>\n And as the negotiation and accomplishment of this peace have been confided by the Sovereigns of the respective Empires to the care of the Commanders-in-chief of their armies, namely, the Field-Marshal Count Pierre de Roumanzow, and the Grand Vizier of the Sublime Porte, Mousson Zade Mechmet Bacha, the said Field\u00ad Marshal and Grand Vizier must, by virtue of the full power given to each of them by their Sovereigns, confirm all the said Articles of the perpetual peace as they are here\u00ad in expressed, and with the same force as if they had been drawn up in their presence, sign them with the seal of their coat-of arms, observe and faithfully and inviolably accomplish all that has been there stipulated and promised, do nothing, nor suffer anything whatsoever to be done in contravention of the said Treaty, and the copies, in every respect similar to the present one, signed by them, and having their seals attached, on the part of the Grand Vizier in the Turkish and Italian language, and on the part of the Field-Marshal in Russian and Italian, as well as the full-powers to them given by their Sovereigns, shall be respectively exchanged by the same persons above-mentioned, who have been sent, on the part of the Sublime Porte, to the Field\u00ad Marshal, \u00a0within five days without fail reckoning from the day of the signing of the present Treaty, and sooner if it be possible it being, from this present time, determined that they shall receive the said copies from the Field-Marshal as soon as they shall have notified that those of the Grand Vizier have reached them ….<\/p>\n2. Separate Articles\n ART. I. Although it is indicated in Article XVII of the Treaty of Peace signed today, that in three months the Imperial Russian fleet will evacuate the islands of the archipelago, in Article XXIV of the same Treaty it is explained that, taking such a distance into consideration, it is not possible to specify how much time may be necessary; we have agreed to hold ourselves to the latter Article. Accordingly, we repeat that the said Imperial Russian fleet, will evacuate the archipelago as soon as Possible, without setting a time limit and to facilitate the evacuation, the sublime Porte will provide [the Imperial Russian fleet] with all that it needs for its voyage, insofar as that depends upon [the Sublime Porte].<\/p>\n This separate Article will receive the same confirmation as the entire Treaty, and we shall give it the same force and validity as if it had been inscribed word for word in the Treaty executed today, in the faith of which we have signed it in our own hand and sealed it with our seals….<\/p>\n ART. II. It is regulated and established by this separate Article that the Sublime Porte will pay the sum of 15,000 purses or 7.5 million piasters, which in Russian money equals 4.5 million rubles, to the Russian Empire in three periods, for the expenses of the war. The first payment will fall due on 1\/12 January 1775; the second payment, on 1\/12 January 1776; the third payment, on 1\/12 January 1777. Each payment of 5,000 purses will be made by the Sublime Porte to the Russian Minister accredited to the said Sublime Porte; and if the Court of Russia should wish some other assurance beyond that, the Ottoman Porte solemnly obligates itself to satisfy [Russia] on that score. This separate Article will be confirmed, together with the entire Treaty signed today and we shall give 1t the same force and validity as if it had been inscribed word for word in the Treaty concluded today between the two respective Empires; in the faith of which we have signed it with our hand and sealed it with our seals….<\/p>\n Great Britain,\u00a0Parliamentary Papers,<\/em>\u00a01854<\/em>, vol. 72, pp. 171-79.<\/strong><\/p>\n In 1864 Russia began actively moving its imperial boundary east of the Caspian into the Kazakh steppe and the khanates of Kokand, Khiva and Bukhara, collectively known to the Russians as Turkestan. Although the advance was partly motivated by Russia\u2019s strategic rivalry with Great Britain in Central Asia, the so-called \u201cGreat Game\u201d, there were other factors at work. In addition to opening badly-needed markets to Russian goods and access to new sources of cotton following the supply disruptions of the American Civil War, the conquest of Turkestan was seen as a means of recouping Russian military prestige following the disaster of the Crimea and of countering British strength elsewhere by placing the tsar\u2019s armies in a position to menace the Achilles\u2019 heel of its rival\u2019s rich Indian possessions.<\/p>\n Following a failed attempt in July of that year, Russian troops succeeded in capturing the oasis town of Shymkent (Tchemkend), expelling the Kokandians and occupying it in September. Anticipating the outcry, particularly from Britain, which would accompany any further advances into Central Asia, Prince A.M. Gorchakov, the Russian Imperial Chancellor and Foreign Minister, prepared an official explanation for the diplomatic corps to provide foreign governments which he hoped would allay European fears and suspicions. In a memorandum dated 14 November intended to clarify Russia\u2019s policy and circulated via its embassies, Gorchakov justified the succession of conquests by citing the need to protect its borders against lawless tribesmen in \u201cthe interests of humanity and civilisation.\u201d<\/p>\n Gorchakov explained the idea behind his country\u2019s imperial advance into Central Asia in terms that many of his European counterparts would have found difficult to dispute, likening the Russian \u2018dilemma\u2019 of advancing until it could establish secure frontiers, and the need for final extension to be based on fertile land suitable for colonisation in order to counter strong states such as Kokand, to those of other empires, namely Britain, France, Holland and the United States. Like them, Russia had been \u201cirresistibly forced, less by ambition than by imperious necessity, into this onward march, where the greatest difficulty is to know when to stop.\u201d The memorandum\u2019s comparison of Russia\u2019s situation with that of the Western countries reflected the belief that Russian policies were consistent with those of other colonial powers, and was skilfully designed to make it difficult for them to protest its actions by equating its position in Central Asia to theirs in their own extensive overseas territories.<\/p>\n In spite of these justifications, Gorchakov averred that Russia\u2019s advance into Central Asia would be limited. The memorandum relied on a distinction between \u201ccivilised states\u201d and \u201chalf-savage, nomadic populations who possess no fixed social organisation.\u201d In such cases, according to Gorchakov, \u201cthe more civilised state is forced, in the interests of security and commerce, to exercise a certain ascendancy over those whose turbulent and unsettled character makes them most undesirable neighbours.\u201d He presents this boundary concept as vindicating further expansion of empire in Turkestan while appearing to accord respect to state boundaries upon which the European international system rested, discriminating the \u201cunstable communities\u201d of nomad tribes from the \u201cagricultural and commercial populations attached to the soil\u201d of the Central Asian khanates, who, in spite of their \u201cbackward civilisation\u201d and \u201cthe instability of their political condition\u201d:<\/p>\n \u201c\u2026 possessing a more advanced social organisation, offer us every chance of gaining neighbours with whom there is a possibility of entering into relations. Consequently, our frontier line ought to swallow up the former, and stop short at the limit of the latter.\u201d<\/p><\/blockquote>\n He went on to promise that once Russia had reached what is now approximately the southern border of modern Kazakhstan, between Ysyk K\u00f6l and the Syr Darya, its frontier would be fixed in order to avoid \u201cthe danger of being carried away, as is almost inevitable, by a series of repressive measures and reprisals, into an unlimited extension of territory.\u201d Accordingly, the Russian Empire would only expand to wherever it met a government able to impose order on a settled population and willing to maintain commercial relations, absorbing areas and peoples lacking \u201csome organised form of society and a Government to direct and represent it,\u201d but not those who \u201caccept that peaceful and commercial relations with her are more profitable than disorder, pillage, reprisals, and a permanent state of war.\u201d Gorchakov expressly identifies the former as an essential criterion for civilisation, stating that \u201cno agent has been found more apt for the progress of civilisation than commercial relations.\u201d Their development, however, \u201crequires everywhere order and stability,\u201d which would only follow \u201ca complete transformation of the habits of the people\u201d \u2013 to be imposed by Russian arms.<\/p>\n As a statement of intent and summary of the Russian view of the peoples of Turkestan, the memorandum is a significant document, supplying not only the motive and legal basis of Russia\u2019s Central Asian policy \u2013 although Khiva and Bukhara were subsequently absorbed, contrary to Gorchakov\u2019s promises, they remained nominally independent as Russian protectorates until Bolshevik annexation in 1920 \u2013 but also the \u00a0moral rationale for intervention, in its interpretation of a tsarist \u2018civilising mission\u2019 not dissimilar from those in circulation in Western colonial discourse at the time. With its parallels to the imperial experience elsewhere, the imposition of highly subjective concepts such as order, commerce and civilisation, filtered through an industrial European lens, onto Central Asian khanates belonging to a much different civilisation and political tradition, presents another example of the difference between modern and early modern conceptions of empire.<\/p>\n (Circular.) \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0 St Petersburg: November 21, 1864<\/p>\n The Russian newspapers have given an account of the last military operations executed by a detachment of our troops in the regions of Central Asia with remarkable success and important results. It was to be foreseen that these events would the more attract the attention of the foreign public that their scene was laid in scarcely known countries.<\/p>\n Our august Master has commanded me to state to you briefly, but with clearness and precision, the position in which we find ourselves in Central Asia, the interests which inspire us in those countries, and the end which we have in view.<\/p>\n The position of Russia in Central Asia is that of all civilised States which are brought into contact with half-savage nomad populations, possessing no fixed social organisation.<\/p>\n In such cases it always happens that the more civilised State is found, in the interest of the security of its frontier and its commercial relations, to exercise a certain ascendancy over those whom their turbulent and unsettled character make most undesirable neighbours. First, there are raids and acts of pillage to be put down. To put a stop to them, the tribes on the frontier have to be reduced to a state of more or less perfect submission. This result once attained, these tribes take to more peaceful habits, but are in their turn exposed to the attacks of the more distant tribes.<\/p>\n The State is bound to defend them against these depredations, and to punish those who commit them. Hence the necessity of distant, costly, and periodically recurring expeditions against an enemy whom his social organisation makes it impossible to seize. If, the robbers once punished, the expedition is withdrawn, the lesson is soon forgotten; its withdrawal is put down to weakness. It is a peculiarity of Asiatics to respect nothing but visible and palpable force; the moral force of reason and of the interests of civilisation has as yet no hold upon them. The work has then always to be done over again from the beginning.<\/p>\n In order to put a stop to this state of permanent disorder, fortified posts are established in the midst of these hostile tribes, and an influence is brought to bear upon them which reduces them by degrees to a state of more or less forced submission. But soon beyond this second line other still more distant tribes come in their turn to threaten the same dangers and necessitate the same measures of repression. The State thus finds itself forced to choose one of two alternatives, either to give up this endless labour and to abandon its frontier to perpetual disturbance, rendering all prosperity, all security, all civilisation an impossibility, or, on the other hand, to plunge deeper and deeper into barbarous countries, where the difficulties and expenses increase with every step in advance.<\/p>\n Such has been the fate of every country which has found itself in a similar position. The United States of America, France in Algeria, Holland in her Colonies, England in India \u2013 all have been irresistibly forced, less by ambition than by imperious necessity, into this onward march, where the greatest difficulty is to know when to stop.<\/p>\n Such, too, have been the reasons which have led the Imperial Government to take up at first a position resting on one side on the Syr-Daria, on the other on the Lake Issyk-Kaul, and to strengthen these two lines by advanced forts, which, little by little, have crept on into the heart of those distant regions, without however succeeding in establishing on the other side of our frontiers that tranquillity which is indispensable for their security.<\/p>\n The explanation of this unsettled state of things is to be found, first, in the fact that, between the extreme points of this double line, there is an immense unoccupied space, where all attempts at colonisation or caravan trade are paralysed by the inroads of the robber tribes; and, in the second place, in the perpetual fluctuations of the political condition of those countries, where Turkistan and Khokand, sometimes united, sometimes at variance, always at war, either with one another or with Bokhara, presented no chance of settled relations or of any regular transactions whatever.<\/p>\n The Imperial Government thus found itself, in spite of all its efforts, in the dilemma we have above alluded to, that is to say, compelled either to permit the continuance of a state of permanent disorder, paralysing to all security and progress, or to condemn itself to costly and distant expeditions, leading to no practical result, and with the work always to be done anew; or, lastly, to enter upon the undefined path of conquest and annexation which has given to England the Empire of India, by attempting the subjugation by armed force, one after another, of the small independent States whose habits of pillage and turbulence and whose perpetual revolts leave their neighbours neither peace nor repose.<\/p>\n Neither of these alternative courses was in accordance with the object of our august Master\u2019s policy, which consists, not in extending beyond all reasonable bounds the regions under his sceptre, but in giving a solid basis to his rule, in guaranteeing their security, and in developing their social organisation, their commerce, their well-being, and their civilisation.<\/p>\n Our task was, therefore, to discover a system adapted to the attainment of this three-fold object.<\/p>\n The following principles have, in consequence, been laid down:\u2013<\/p>\n 1. It has been judged to be indispensable that our two fortified frontier lines \u2013 one extending from China to the Lake Issyk-Kaul, the other from the Sea of Aral along the Syr-Daria \u2013 should be united by fortified points, so that all our posts should be in a position of mutual support, leaving no gap through which the nomad tribes might make with impunity their inroads and depredations.<\/p>\n 2. It was essential that the line of our advanced forts thus completed should be situated in a country fertile enough, not only to insure their supplies, but also to facilitate the regular colonisation, which alone can prepare a future of stability and prosperity for the occupied country, by gaining over the neighbouring populations to civilised life.<\/p>\n 3. And, lastly, it was urgent to lay down this line definitively, so as to escape the danger of being carried away, as is almost inevitable, by a series of repressive measures and reprisals, into an unlimited extension of territory.<\/p>\n To attain this end a system had to be established, which should depend not only on reason, which may be elastic, but on geographical and political conditions, which are fixed and permanent.<\/p>\n This system was suggested to us by a very simple fact, the result of long experience, namely, that the nomad tribes, which can neither be seized nor punished, nor effectually kept in order, are our most inconvenient neighbours; while, on the other hand, agricultural and commercial populations attached to the soil, and possessing a more advanced social organisation, offer us every chance of gaining neighbours with whom there is a possibility of entering into relations.<\/p>\n Consequently, our frontier line ought to swallow up the former, and stop short at the limit of the latter.<\/p>\n These three principles supply a clear, natural, and logical explanation of our last military operations in Central Asia. In fact, our original frontier line, extending along the Syr-Daria to Fort Perovsky on one side, and on the other to the Lake Issyk-Kaul, had the drawback of being almost on the verge of the desert. It was broken by a wide gap between the two extreme points: it did not offer sufficient resources to our troops, and left unsettled tribes over the border, with which any settled arrangement became impossible.<\/p>\n In spite of our unwillingness to extend our frontier, these motives had been powerful enough to induce the Imperial Government to establish this line between Lake Issyk-Kaul and the Syr-Daria, by fortifying the town of Tchemkend, lately occupied by us. By the adoption of this line we obtain a double result. In the first place, the country it takes in is fertile, well wooded, and watered by numerous watercourses; it is partly inhabited by various Kirghiz tribes, which have already accepted our rule; it consequently offers favourable conditions for colonisation and the supply of provisions to our garrisons. In the second place, it puts us in the immediate neighbourhood of the agricultural and commercial populations of Khokand. We find ourselves in presence of a more solid and compact, less unsettled, and better organised social state; fixing for us with geographical precision the limit up to which we are bound to advance, and at which we must halt, because, while on the one hand any further extension of our rule, meeting, as it would, no longer with unstable communities, such as the nomad tribes, but with more regularly constituted States, would entail considerable exertions, and would draw us on from annexation to annexation with unforeseen complications; on the other, with such States for our future neighbours, their backward civilisation, and the instability of their political condition, do not shut us out from the hope that the day may come when regular relations may, to the advantage of both parties, take the place of the permanent troubles which have up to the present moment paralysed all progress in those countries.<\/p>\n Such, sir, are the interests which inspire the policy of our august Master in Central Asia: such is the object, by his Imperial Majesty\u2019s orders, of the action of his Cabinet.<\/p>\n You are requested to take these arguments as your guide in any explanations you may give to the Government to which you are accredited, in case questions are asked or you may see credence given to erroneous ideas as to our action in these distant parts.<\/p>\n It is needless for me to lay stress upon the interests which Russia evidently has not to increase her territory, and, above all, to avoid raising complications on her frontiers, which can but delay and paralyse her domestic development.<\/p>\n The programme which I have just traced is in accordance with these views.<\/p>\n Very frequently of late years the civilisation of these countries, which are her neighbours on the continent of Asia, has been assigned to Russia as her special mission.<\/p>\n No agent has been found more apt for the progress of civilisation than commercial relations. Their development requires everywhere order and stability; but in Asia it demands a complete transformation of the habits of the people. The first thing to be taught to the populations of Asia is that they will gain more in favouring and protecting the caravan trade than in robbing them. These elementary ideas can only be accepted by the public where one exists; that is to say, where there is some organised form of society and a Government to direct and represent it.<\/p>\n We are accomplishing the first part of our task in carrying our frontier to the limit where the indispensable conditions are to be found.<\/p>\n The second we shall accomplish in making every effort henceforward to prove to our neighbouring States, by a system of firmness in the repression of their misdeeds, combined with moderation and justice in the use of our strength, and respect for their independence, that Russia is not their enemy, that she entertains towards them no ideas of conquest, and that peaceful and commercial relations with her are more profitable than disorder, pillage, reprisals, and a permanent state of war.<\/p>\n The Imperial Cabinet, in assuming this task, takes as its guide the interests of Russia. But it believes that, at the same time, it is promoting the interests of humanity and civilisation. It has a right to expect that the line of conduct it pursues and the principles which guide it will meet with a just and candid appreciation.<\/p>\n (Signed) Gorchakov.<\/p>\n Causes of the Afghan War: Being a Selection of Papers Laid Before Parliament with a Connecting Narrative and Comment. London : Chatto & Windus, 1879. pp. 222-227.<\/strong><\/p>\n Annotated by Daniel Lee<\/em><\/p>\n During the second half of the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperor Akbar commissioned the\u00a0Tarikh-I Sher Shahi<\/em>\u00a0(history of the reign of Sher Shah) to be written. Interested in the history of administrative apparatuses during the reign of Afghan empire builder Farid Khan or Sher Shah (r.1540 \u2013 1545), Akbar commanded Abbas Khan, an Afghan newswrite (waqia-navis<\/em>) in his employ, to complete this work. The author of this source claims to have been related to the family of Sher Shah by marriage. This allegedly gave him an access to authentic information concerning the aspects of Sher Shah\u2019s administration. The author also interviewed those who were contemporary to Sher Shah or had witnessed some important events. According to the editor, John Dowson, the work is \u201ca biography, not a history.\u201d<\/p>\n Although this source is in the form of a biography, it contains valuable historical information on political developments and state formation in northern India during the first half of the sixteenth century. The fluid political situation of this period, which witnessed the political transition from the Afghans to the Mughals, offered excellent opportunities to the sturdy warlords who staked claims at forming their own kingdoms. One of these warlords, Farid Khan succeeded in concentrating the resources and power, recruited militia, expanded his sphere of influence and eventually ousted the Mughals to form his own empire. Farid Khan achieved this by his political ingenuity and administrative skills that he learnt while managing his father\u2019s\u00a0jagir<\/em>\u00a0(revenue bearing land) in southern Bihar.<\/p>\n This is a valuable source for the South Asian history. The politically unsettled conditions of the first half of the sixteenth century remind of the similar circumstances in the first half of the eighteenth century. The region that had given rise to Sher Shah once again harbored many warlords cum state-builders who were accumulating more wealth and power. Taking cue from these warlords and after an initial foray into\u00a0zamindari<\/em>, the EIC expanded militarily and politically and formed its own Indian empire.<\/p>\n [Praise of God and the Prophet.]<\/p>\n 1<\/sup>The First Chapter contains the history of the reign of Sher Sh\u00e1h S\u00far. The Second relates the history of the reign of Isl\u00e1m Sh\u00e1h, son of Sher Sh\u00e1h S\u00far. The Third Chapter concerns the history of the princes who were descended from Sher Sh\u00e1h, and who, subsequent to Isl\u00e1m Kh\u00e1n, laid claim to the sovereignty, and struck coin and read the\u00a0khutba<\/em>\u00a0in their own names; and who dethroned the son of Islam Sh\u00e1h.<\/p>\n I, the humble sweeper of the threshold of the dweller in the palace the Second Alexander, the author of the history of the reigns of the Afgh\u00e1ns\u2014’Abb\u00e1s, son of Shaikh ‘Al\u00ed Sarw\u00e1n\u00ed\u2014 write by order of the Emperor Akbar.<\/p>\nCHAPTER I.<\/strong>\nAccount of the reign of Sher Sh\u00e1h S\u00far.<\/em>\n I derive my information from trustworthy Afgh\u00e1ns, skilled in the science of history and in rhetoric, who accompanied the king from the beginning of his fortunes to the end of his reign, and were employed in his confidential service. I have written also what I have well ascertained from others. Whatever was opposed to the information thus acquired, and could not stand the touchstone of truth, I have rejected.<\/p>\n When Sult\u00e1n Bahlol, of the family of S\u00e1h\u00fa-khail, of the tribe of Lodi Afgh\u00e1n, possessed the throne of Dehl\u00ed, there were many persons in the various kingdoms of Hind who struck coin, and had the\u00a0khutba<\/em>\u00a0read in their own names, and who were hostile to him.<\/p>\n Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad bin Sult\u00e1n Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm Shark\u00ed possessed the throne of Jaunp\u00far, Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad Khilj\u00ed reigned in M\u00e1lw\u00e1, Sult\u00e1n Kutbu-d d\u00edn in Gujar\u00e1t, Sult\u00e1n ‘Al\u00e1u-d d\u00edn Ahmad Sh\u00e1h in the Dekhin, and Sult\u00e1n Zainu-l ‘\u00e1bid\u00edn in Kashm\u00edr; but the names of the rulers of Bengal2<\/sup>\u00a0and Tatta are not known to me. The ruler of Mult\u00e1n was Shaikh Y\u00fasuf, the spiritual successor of Shaikh Makhd\u00fam Bah\u00e1u-d d\u00edn Zakariy\u00e1 Kuraish\u00ed. As long as Sult\u00e1n Bahlol remained within the great city of Dehl\u00ed, the capital, no one of these Sult\u00e1ns placed the foot of presumption in the plain of opposition.<\/p>\n R\u00e1\u00ed S\u00edhar Lang\u00e1h, Zam\u00ednd\u00e1r of Z\u00e1b\u00edr\u00ed,3<\/sup>\u00a0having expelled Shaikh Y\u00fasuf from the city of Mult\u00e1n, himself assumed the kingdom, with the title of Sult\u00e1n Kutbu-d d\u00edn. Shaikh Y\u00fasuf came to Dehl\u00ed and entreated the Sult\u00e1n’s aid. Sult\u00e1n Bahlol and his veteran army having accordingly set out for Mult\u00e1n, in company with Shaikh Y\u00fasuf, Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad of Jaunp\u00far came to Dehl\u00ed and besieged it.<\/p>\n Sult\u00e1n Bahlol was at D\u00edp\u00e1lp\u00far when he heard the distressing intelligence of the siege of Dehl\u00ed, and he said to his nobles and ministers: \u201cThe countries of Hind are broad and rich, and their kings are of Indian extraction. In my own land I have many kinsmen renowned for their valour and strength, who are pressed for a livelihood. Were they here they would be relieved from the contempt of poverty, and I could grasp Hind and destroy my enemies.\u201d<\/p>\n His chiefs replied: \u201c*** It is expedient under present cir\u00adcumstances that His Majesty the Sult\u00e1n should send letters to the chiefs of the tribes in the Roh country to this effect: \u2018God in his goodness has granted the kingdom of Dehl\u00ed to the Afgh\u00e1ns, but the other kings of Hind wish to expel them from the country. The honour of our women is concerned; the lands of Hind are broad and rich, and can afford mainten\u00adance to many. Come, then, to this country; the name indeed of sovereignty shall remain with me, but whatever countries we may conquer shall be shared between us as brothers. Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad of Jaunp\u00far is now besieging Dehl\u00ed, where the families of the Afgh\u00e1ns are. If you feel disposed to assist me, you must do so now, and with a large force.\u2019\u201d ** The king, approving of this advice, issued\u00a0farm\u00e1ns<\/em>\u00a0to the chiefs of the various Afgh\u00e1n tribes. On receipt of the\u00a0farm\u00e1ns<\/em>, the Afgh\u00e1ns of Roh came, as is their wont, like ants and locusts, to enter the king’s service.<\/p>\n When they drew near to Dehl\u00ed, a force was sent by Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad Shark\u00ed to give them battle. Fath Kh\u00e1n Hiraw\u00ed, Sipah-s\u00e1l\u00e1r of Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad, had with him a large force, and elephants like mountains; but the Afgh\u00e1ns, in a moment, overthrew his army and levelled it with the dust. When Sult\u00e1n Mahm\u00fad heard of the death of Fath Kh\u00e1n, he fled without fighting, and of the countries of Hind a considerable portion fell on this occasion into the possession of Sult\u00e1n Bahlol.<\/p>\n K\u00e1l\u00fa Kh\u00e1n, chief of the Mahm\u00fad-khail, of the family of S\u00e1h\u00fa-khail Bahlol\u00ed, was wounded in the engagement above mentioned, and Sult\u00e1n Bahlol sent him a present of money by way of recompense; but he refused it, saying, \u201cI did not come here to sell my wounds.\u201d At the same time, many of the chiefs of name besought the king for leave to depart. The king entreated them to remain, but they said:\u2014\u201cWe came on this occasion to succour and assist you, to save the reputation and honour of your women. Dismiss us now we entreat of you, here\u00adafter we will again return to your service.\u201d The king loaded them with presents of money and goods of all kinds, beyond their utmost expectations, and provided them with everything they could possibly want. Such Afgh\u00e1ns as chose to remain in his service he ennobled, and gave them\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>\u00a0to their full content. K\u00e1l\u00fa Kh\u00e1n, however, said:\u2014\u201cYour Majesty must excuse my declining to accept anything, as I did not come to this country from any worldly motives.\u201d<\/p>\n When the chiefs of the tribes of Roh had gone, the king com\u00admanded his nobles, saying:\u2014\u201cEvery Afgh\u00e1n who comes to Hind from the country of Roh to enter my service, bring him to me. I will give him a\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0more than proportioned to his deserts, and such as shall content him; but if he for reasons of kindred or friendship prefers remaining in the service of any one of you, do you provide for him to his satisfaction; for if I hear of one Afgh\u00e1n from Roh returning thither again for want of a livelihood or employment, I will resume the\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>\u00a0of that noble who may have refused to entertain him.\u201d When the Afgh\u00e1ns of Roh heard of this, and saw the favour and affection of the king towards them, they began every day, every month, and every year, to arrive in Hind, and received\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>\u00a0to their heart’s content.<\/p>\n It was at the time of this bounty of Sult\u00e1n Bahlol, that the grandfather of Sher Sh\u00e1h, by name Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm Kh\u00e1n S\u00far,4<\/sup> with his son Hasan Kh\u00e1n, the father of Sher Sh\u00e1h, came to Hindu-st\u00e1n from Afgh\u00e1nist\u00e1n, from a place which is called in the Afgh\u00e1n tongue \u201cShargar\u00ed,\u201d5<\/sup>\u00a0but in the Mult\u00e1n tongue \u201cRohr\u00ed.\u201d It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaim\u00e1n Mountains, about six or seven\u00a0kos<\/em>\u00a0in length, situated on the banks of the Gumal. They entered into the service of Muhabbat Kh\u00e1n S\u00far, D\u00e1\u00fad S\u00e1h\u00fa-khail, to whom Sult\u00e1n Bahlol had given in\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0the\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0of Hari\u00e1na and Bahk\u00e1la, etc., in the Panj\u00e1b, and they settled in the\u00a0pargana<\/em>\u00a0of Bajw\u00e1ra.<\/p>\n Sher Sh\u00e1h was born in the reign of Sult\u00e1n Bahlol, and they named him Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n.6<\/sup><\/p>\n After some time had elapsed, Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm Kh\u00e1n left Muhabbat Kh\u00e1n, and entered the service of Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n S\u00e1rang-kh\u00e1ni, of His\u00e1r-F\u00edrozah, who bestowed on him several villages in\u00a0pargana<\/em>\u00a0N\u00e1rnaul for the maintenance of forty horsemen. And M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan Kh\u00e1n, the father of Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, entered the service of Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n Sarw\u00e1n\u00ed Kalkap\u00far, who bore the title of Kh\u00e1n-i ‘azam, and was a counsellor and courtier of Sult\u00e1n Bahlol. After the death of Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed T\u00e1t\u00e1r Kh\u00e1n, Bahlol gave (the government of) L\u00e1hore to this ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n, who held as\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>, in the\u00a0sirk\u00e1r<\/em>\u00a0of Sirhind, Bhatn\u00far, Sh\u00e1h\u00e1b\u00e1d, and P\u00e1elp\u00far; and ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n gave several villages in the\u00a0pargana<\/em>\u00a0of Sh\u00e1h\u00e1b\u00e1d as a\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0to Hasan Kh\u00e1n.<\/p>\n After some time, Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n said to his father Hasan Kh\u00e1n, \u201cTake me before Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n, and say for me: \u2018Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n wishes to serve you\u2014order him on any duty of which he is capable.\u2019\u201d Hasan Kh\u00e1n declined compliance on ac\u00adcount of his tender age, recommending him to wait some time longer. Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n then spoke to his mother, and his mother said to Hasan Kh\u00e1n\u2014\u201cSince he desires to see the Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed, take him with you\u2014perhaps he may be pleased at the request of so young a boy, and give him something\u201d Hasan Kh\u00e1n, to please Far\u00edd and his mother, took him with him before Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n, and said:\u2014\u201cFar\u00edd wishes to serve you.\u201d ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n replied\u2014\u201cFar\u00edd is now a little boy; when he is fit for my service I will employ him. For the present I give him Balh\u00fa, a hamlet of the village of Mah\u00e1wal\u00ed.\u201d7<\/sup> Hasan Kh\u00e1n and Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n were exceedingly delighted, and when Far\u00edd got home he said to his mother\u2014\u201cMy father would not take me but at your request, and Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed has given me a village in\u00a0pargana<\/em>\u00a0Sh\u00e1h\u00e1b\u00e1d.\u201d<\/p>\n Several years after this, Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm Kh\u00e1n, the father of Hasan Kh\u00e1n, died at N\u00e1rnaul. Hasan Kh\u00e1n, when he heard of his father’s death, left Sh\u00e1h\u00e1b\u00e1d, and coming before ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n, who was with Sult\u00e1n Bahlol’s army, requested leave of absence to condole with the members of his father’s family and retainers, saying he would return with them, for that he would not quit ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n’s service for any worldly advancement. ‘Umar Kh\u00e1n replied: \u201cYou are aware that I have already given you your share of the\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>\u00a0which I possess, nor can I entertain more men. Your father’s retainers now all look to you. You will be able to obtain you father’s\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>, or even a larger one than your father’s was. I am not so unjust to my own tribe as to keep you on a small\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>.\u201d Such were the Afgh\u00e1n nobles, and such their favour towards their own race and kindred, that if they saw their Afgh\u00e1ns could elsewhere obtain more than they themselves were able to give, they at once sent them with recommendations in search of better employment.<\/p>\n Hasan Kh\u00e1n was well pleased, and the next day Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed sent for Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, and strongly recommending Hasan Kh\u00e1n to him, persuaded him to bestow on him his father’s\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>, with several villages in addition to it, and said, \u201cWhatever kindness you show to Hasan Kh\u00e1n, you will be doing a favour to me.\u201d Then giving Hasan Kh\u00e1n a horse and a dress of honour, he dis\u00admissed him. After this, Hasan Kh\u00e1n did such service for Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n as satisfied and pleased him.<\/p>\n After Sult\u00e1n Bahlol’s death, Sikandar his son succeeded, and conquered Jaunp\u00far from his brother Baibak, and conferred the\u00a0s\u00fabah<\/em>\u00a0on Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, and ordered him to keep up 12,000 horse, and to assign them\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>. Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, who was much pleased with Hasan Kh\u00e1n’s good service, took him with him, and gave him in\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0the\u00a0parganas<\/em> of Sahsar\u00e1m, H\u00e1j\u00edp\u00far, and T\u00e1nda,8<\/sup>\u00a0near Benares, to maintain 500 horsemen.<\/p>\n Hasan Kh\u00e1n had eight sons. Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n and Niz\u00e1m Kh\u00e1n were born of one Afgh\u00e1n mother; ‘Al\u00ed and Y\u00fasuf of another mother; Khurram9<\/sup>\u00a0and Sh\u00e1d\u00ed Kh\u00e1n of a third; Sulaim\u00e1n and Ahmad of a fourth.<\/p>\n Hasan Kh\u00e1n did not care for or love the mother of Far\u00edd and Niz\u00e1m, but was very fond of his slave-girls, and was especially attached to the mother of Sulaim\u00e1n and Ahmad; and she gained such influence over Hasan Kh\u00e1n, that she entirely ruled him. Angry words often passed between Hasan and Far\u00edd. When he was assigned\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>, M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan showed little partiality to Far\u00edd, and did not give him a\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0which contented him. Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, annoyed with his father, went to Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n at Jaunp\u00far. When M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan discovered that Far\u00edd had gone there, he wrote to Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n thus: \u201cFar\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, being an\u00adnoyed with me, has gone to you without sufficient cause. I trust in your kindness to appease him, and send him back; but if refusing to listen to you, he will not return, I trust you will keep him with you, for I wish him to be instructed in religious and polite learning.\u201d<\/p>\n Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n sent for Far\u00edd, and advised him in every possible way to return to his father; but he refused, and said, \u201cIf my father wants me back to instruct me in learning, there are in this city many learned men: I will study here.\u201d Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n made no further objection. Far\u00edd employed himself in studying Arabic at Jaunp\u00far. He also studied thoroughly the\u00a0K\u00e1f\u00ed\u00e1<\/em>,10<\/sup>\u00a0with the commentaries of K\u00e1z\u00ed Shah\u00e1bu-d d\u00edn, and the biogra\u00adphies of most of the kings of ancient times. He had got by heart the\u00a0Sikandar-n\u00e1ma<\/em>, the\u00a0Gulist\u00e1n<\/em>, and\u00a0Bost\u00e1n<\/em>, etc., and was also reading the works of the philosophers. Subsequently, whenever, during his reign, learned men came to ask him for a maintenance (madad-ma’\u00e1sh<\/em>), he used to ask them about the\u00a0H\u00e1shia-i Hindia<\/em>, and he still retained his liking for books of history and the lives of ancient kings.<\/p>\n It happened after some years, that Hasan Kh\u00e1n came to Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, when all his kinsmen who were in Jaunp\u00far reproached him for having sent Far\u00edd away from his presence for the sake of a slave-girl; and they remarked that Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, young as he was, gave promise of future greatness; that he bore the marks of excellence on his forehead, and that in all the tribe of S\u00far there was none who possessed learning, talent, wisdom, and prudence like him; and he had qualified himself so well, that if Hasan Kh\u00e1n would entrust him with the charge of a\u00a0pargana<\/em>, he would discharge it excellently well, and perfectly perform all his duties. Hasan Kh\u00e1n assented to what his kindred said, and replied, \u201cPacify him and bring him to me; I will agree to whatever you say.\u201d His friends replied, \u201cAs you are generally in Jaunp\u00far in attendance on Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, it is advisable you should entrust the administration of your two\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0to Far\u00edd.\u201d Hasan Kh\u00e1n agreed to his kinsmen’s request. In great glee they came to Far\u00edd, and said, \u201cM\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan has agreed to everything we have said in your behalf, and has dissented from nothing. It behoves you also to assent to what we say to you.\u201d Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n replied, \u201cI will agree to anything you may say, nor will I ever draw back from it; but as soon as Hasan Kh\u00e1n sees the face of the slave-girl, he will do whatever she tells him.\u201d His kinsmen rejoined: \u201cDo you nevertheless agree; if he departs from his agreement with us, we will remonstrate with him.\u201d<\/p>\n When Far\u00edd heard these words of his kinsmen, he said, \u201cTo please you I accept the management of the two districts. I will not fail to do my duty to the best of my power.\u201d Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, much pleased, accompanied his relatives to his father’s presence. His father also was much gratified, and kept him for some months with him. Afterwards, Hasan Kh\u00e1n wished to send Far\u00edd to the\u00a0parganas<\/em>; but Far\u00edd representing to Hasan Kh\u00e1n that he wished first to speak with him, he obtained leave to do so, and thus began: \u201cMany soldiers and subordinates, our kins\u00admen, have\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>\u00a0in these\u00a0parganas<\/em>. I shall devote myself to increase the prosperity of the district, and that depends on a just administration; for it has been said by the learned:\u201d *** When Hasan Kh\u00e1n heard his son’s speech he was much gratified, and said:\u2014\u201cI will give you the power both to grant and to resume the soldier’s\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>, and I will not reverse anything you may do.\u201d He accordingly sent Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n to his two\u00a0parganas<\/em>, with every mark of favour.<\/p>\n When he got to his\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>, he said:\u2014\u201cLet all the head men, (mukaddam\u00e1n<\/em>) and the cultivators (muz\u00e1r\u00ed’\u00e1n<\/em>) on whose labour the prosperity of the district depends, and all the village ac\u00adcountants (patw\u00e1r\u00eds<\/em>), attend my presence. When they came, he summoned also the soldiery, and thus addressed them:\u2014\u201cMy father (ab\u00fa<\/em>) has committed to me the power of appointing and dismissing you. I have set my heart on improving the pro\u00adsperity of the district, in which object also your own interests are concerned; and by this means I hope to establish my reputation.\u201d *** When he had finished exhorting the soldiery, he turned to the peasantry, and said:\u2014\u201cThis day I give you your choice as to your mode of payment. Do whatever is most advantageous to your own interests in every possible way.\u201d<\/p>\n Some of the head-men asked for written agreements for a fixed money rent;11<\/sup>\u00a0others preferred payment in kind (kismat-\u00ed ghalla<\/em>). Accordingly he gave leases and took agreements, and fixed the payments for measuring the fields (jar\u00edb\u00e1na<\/em>), and the fees for the tax-collectors and measurers (muhassil\u00e1na<\/em>); and he said to the\u00a0Chaudharis<\/em>\u00a0and head-men:\u2014\u201cI know well that the cultivation depends on the humble peasants, for if they be ill off they will produce nothing, but if prosperous they will produce much. I know the oppressions and exactions of which you have been guilty towards the cultivators; and for this reason I have fixed the pay\u00adments for measurements, and the tax-gatherers’ fees,\u2014that if you exact from the cultivators more on this account than is fixed, it may not be credited to you in making up your accounts. Be it known to you, that I will take the accounts of the fees in my own presence. Whatever dues are rightly taken I will sanction, and compel the cultivators to pay them; and I will also collect the Government dues for the autumn harvest in the autumn, and for the spring harvest in the spring; for balances of Government dues are the ruin of a\u00a0pargana<\/em>, and the cause of quarrels between the cultivators and the Government officers. It is right for a ruler to show leniency to the cultivators at the period of measurement, and to have a regard to the actual produce; but when the time of payment comes he should show no leniency, but collect the revenue with all strictness. If he perceives the cultivators are evading payment, he should so chastise them as to be an example to others not to act in the same way.\u201d He then said to the peasantry:\u2014\u201cWhatever matter you have to represent, bring it always yourselves to me. I will suffer no one to oppress you.\u201d<\/p>\n Having thus addressed them, he dismissed them with hono\u00adrary dresses to carry on their cultivation. After dismissing the cultivators, he said to his father’s officers:\u2014\u201cThe cultivators are the source of prosperity. I have encouraged them and sent them away, and shall always watch over their condition, that no man may oppress and injure them; for if a ruler cannot protect humble peasantry from the lawless, it is tyranny to exact re\u00advenue from them. There are certain\u00a0zam\u00ednd\u00e1rs<\/em>\u00a0who have been behaving contumaciously in these\u00a0parganas<\/em>, who have not pre\u00adsented themselves at the Governor’s court (mahkama-i-h\u00e1kim<\/em>), do not pay their full revenue, and harass the villages in their neighbourhood\u2014how shall I overcome and destroy them?\u201d They replied:\u2014\u201cMost of the troops are with M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan; wait a few days and they will return.\u201d Far\u00edd said, \u201cI cannot have patience while they refuse to come to me, and continue to oppress and injure the people of God; do you consider what I can contrive against these rebels, and how I may chastise them.\u201d<\/p>\n He ordered his father’s nobles to saddle 200 horses, and to see how many soldiers there were in the\u00a0pargana<\/em>, and he sent for all the Afgh\u00e1ns and men of his tribe who were without\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edrs<\/em>, and said to them,\u2014\u201cI will give you subsistence and clothing till M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan returns. Whatever goods or money you may get from the plunder of these rebels is yours, nor will I ever require it of you; and whoever among you may distinguish himself, for him I will procure a good\u00a0j\u00e1g\u00edr<\/em>\u00a0from M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan. I will my\u00adself give you horses to ride on.\u201d When they heard this they were much pleased, and said they would not fail in doing their duty under his auspices. He put the men who had engaged to serve him in good humour by all sorts of favours, and by gifts of clothes, etc., and presented them also with a little money.<\/p>\n He then sent to the cultivators for horses, saying, \u201cBring your horses to me as a loan for a few days, as I particularly require them. When I return after finishing this business, I will give you back your horses.\u201d They willingly and cheerfully agreed to lend their horses, and from every village they brought one or two horses, and put on the saddles which they had ready in their houses, etc. Far\u00edd gave to every one of his soldiers who had not one of his own, a horse to ride, and hastened against the rebels, and plundered their villages, bringing away the women and children, cattle and property. To the soldiery he made over all the property and quadrupeds which came into their possession; but the women and children and the peasantry he kept himself in confinement, and sent to the head-men, say\u00ading:\u2014\u201cPay me my rights; if not, I will sell your wives and children, and will not suffer you to settle anywhere again. Wherever you may go, thither will I pursue you; and to what\u00adever village you may go, I will command the head men to seize and make you over to me, or else I will attack them also.\u201d When the head-men heard these words, they sent to say: \u201cPardon our past offences, and if hereafter we do anything you do not approve, punish us in any way you choose.\u201d Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n sent to say in reply, \u201cGive security, in order that if you offend and abscond, your security may be held respon\u00adsible for your appearance.\u201d So the head-men, whose wives and families he had in confinement, paid what was due from them to Government, and gave security for their appearance, and so released their wives and families.<\/p>\n There were some\u00a0zam\u00ednd\u00e1rs<\/em>\u00a0who had committed all sorts of offences, such as theft and highway robbery, and refusing to pay revenue, never came to the Governor’s presence, but were insolent from confidence in their numbers. Although these were often warned, they took no heed. Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n collected his forces, and commanded that every one of his villagers who had a horse should come riding upon it, and that he who had not a horse should come on foot. And he took with him half his own soldiers, and the other half he employed in collecting revenue and other local duties.<\/p>\n When the soldiers and peasantry were assembled, he marched towards the villages of the recusants, and at a distance of a\u00a0kos<\/em>\u00a0threw up an earthen entrenchment; and ordered them to cut down the neighbouring jungle. His horsemen he directed to patrol round the villages; to kill all the men they met, and to make prisoners of the women and children, to drive in the cattle, to permit no one to cultivate the fields, to destroy the crops already sown, and not to permit any one to bring anything in from the neighbouring parts, nor to allow any one of them to carry anything out of the village, and to watch them day and night; and he every day repeated the order to his force to invest the village, and not to permit a soul to go out. His footmen he also ordered to cut down the jungle. When the jungle was all cut down, he marched from his former position, and made another entrenchment nearer the village, and occupied it. The rebels were humbled, and sent a representative saying, that if Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n would pardon their fault, they would submit. Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n replied that he would not accept their submis\u00adsion, and that there could be nothing but hostility between him and them; to whichever God might please, he would give the victory.<\/p>\n Although the rebels humbled themselves in every way, and offered to pay a large sum of money, yet Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n would not accept the money, but said to his men:\u2014\u201cThis is the way of these rebels: first they fight and oppose their rulers; if they find him weak, they persist in their rebelliousness; but if they see that he is strong, they come to him deceitfully and humble themselves, and agree to pay a sum of money, and so they persuade their ruler to leave them alone; but as soon as they find an opportunity, they return to their evil ways. ***<\/p>\n Early in the morning, Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n mounted and attacked the criminal\u00a0zam\u00ednd\u00e1rs<\/em>, and put all the rebels to death, and making all their women and children prisoners, ordered his men to sell them or keep them as slaves; and brought other people to the village and settled them there. When the other rebels heard of the death, imprisonment, and ruin of these, they listened to wisdom, repented of their contumacy, and abstained from theft and robbery.<\/p>\n If any soldier or peasant had a complaint, Far\u00edd would examine it in person, and carefully investigate the cause, nor did he ever give way to carelessness or sloth.<\/p>\n In a very short time, both\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0became prosperous, and the soldiery and peasantry were alike contented. When M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan heard of this, he was much pleased; and in all companies used to make mention of the prosperity of his\u00a0parganas<\/em>, the gallantry of his son, and the subjection of the\u00a0zam\u00ednd\u00e1rs<\/em>.<\/p>\n The fame of Far\u00edd’s wisdom was noised abroad over the king\u00addom of Bih\u00e1r, and all the nobles of that country who heard of it praised it. He gained a reputation among men, and satisfied and pleased all his friends and others, except a few enemies, such as the mother of Sulaim\u00e1n.<\/p>\n When, after some time, M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan came to his home from attendance on Masnad-i ‘\u00e1l\u00ed M\u00ed\u00e1n Jam\u00e1l Kh\u00e1n, all the vassals and soldiery with one voice unanimously proclaimed their well\u00adbeing, and he witnessed himself the prosperity of the country and replenishment of the treasury, and was extremely delighted with Far\u00edd. The dislike which he formerly entertained was dispelled, and he distinguished both brothers with all kinds of favours. \u201cI am now old,\u201d he said, \u201cnor can I bear the labour and trouble and thought of governing the\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0and the soldiery while I live; do you manage them.\u201d<\/p>\n This speech displeased Sulaim\u00e1n and his mother, and they made all kinds of lying and false complaints to M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, and the money which Far\u00edd had, for his sister’s wedding, given to Sulaim\u00e1n, they changed, and showed to M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, declaring it was bad. Every day they complained and railed against Far\u00edd Kh\u00e1n, but M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan gave ear to none of them. Sulaim\u00e1n and his mother perceived that M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan was not incensed against Far\u00edd by their lying complaints, but said to them, \u201cIt is not right that you should always rail at Far\u00edd. Except you two, there is not a person among my friends, soldiers, or vassals, who complains of him; and I also am satisfied and grateful for his conduct and excellent behaviour, for both my\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0are prosperous.\u201d<\/p>\n When the mother of Sulaim\u00e1n heard M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan thus speak, she was overcome with grief, and discontinued complaining to M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, but from that day seldom held any intercourse with M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan. She publicly displayed her grief, and the love and the intimacy which M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan had previously enjoyed with her were interrupted. M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan perceived her great affliction, and one day said to her, \u201cWhat is the cause of your grief? and what is the reason of your shunning me?\u201d She replied, \u201cI was once your humble slave, you distinguished me by your love and affection, and the rest of your family, from envy, are little affectionate towards me; nor yet, to the best of my ability, have I failed in my duty to them. He (Far\u00edd) is your eldest son, and looks to succeed to your posi\u00adtion, and if, during your life, you do not distinguish my sons as well as Far\u00edd, nor give them the management of a\u00a0pargana<\/em>, I will in your presence kill myself and my sons; for in your lifetime they should acquire property. Far\u00edd and your kindred, who are my enemies, after your death will insult and turn us out of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>. Therefore, it is better for us to die in your presence, than to survive dishonoured among our enemies.\u201d<\/p>\n M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, bound in the chain of her love, and helpless from the force of his affection (from which to the lover there is no escape), was persuaded by her, and withdrew his fickle affec\u00adtions from his eldest son, and sought to remove him from the country, and to place his other sons in his room. The mother of Sulaim\u00e1n said, \u201cI hope much from your love, but your relatives will not permit you to take away the management of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0from Far\u00edd.\u201d M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, who was entangled in the noose of her love, swore a solemn oath to her and appeased her.<\/p>\n After this M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan sought to discover some fault in Far\u00edd, and to remove him, and employed himself in examining his actions. Excessive aversion was kindled and angry words passed between M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan and Far\u00edd. When Far\u00edd dis\u00adcovered that M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan had promised the mother of Sulaim\u00e1n that he would give the management of both\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0to her sons, and had violated the promise which he had given to his kinsmen, Far\u00edd threw up the management of them, and sent to M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, saying, \u201cSo long as I saw my father’s affections and kindness turned towards me, I carried on the business of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u2014now make anybody manager you like. Certain per\u00adsons from envy and enmity have conveyed to your hearing reports which have grieved you. My father, inquire into them, as I shall show you how.\u201d ***<\/p>\n M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan sent to Far\u00edd in reply, saying, \u201cThere is no reason that I should make inquiries; for while I was even absent with the army, I understood the real state of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>, and that you doubled the prosperity of the country. And if you have appropriated anything, well and good. It is your own pro\u00adperty, and it is no reproach. *** Your degenerate brothers, Sulaim\u00e1n and the rest, give me daily annoyance. I do not think they are able to manage the country. However much I advise, it makes no impression on them: they have taken away my rest and peace, and their mother is interfering perpetually in my affairs on behalf of her sons. I am obliged to permit Sulaim\u00e1n and Ahmad to act for a short time as\u00a0shikkd\u00e1rs<\/em>\u00a0of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>, that I may be freed from this daily and nightly vexation.\u201d When Far\u00edd heard these words from his father, he said, \u201cThe two\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0are my father’s, let him give their management to whomsoever he will.\u201d<\/p>\n When M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan’s relations heard that he had taken away the management of the two\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0from Far\u00edd, and was in\u00adtending to confer it on Sulaim\u00e1n and Ahmad, and that Far\u00edd was preparing to go to \u00c1gra to gain his livelihood (for in those days \u00c1gra was the capital city), they came to M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan, and said:\u2014\u201cIt is not right for you to take away the management of the\u00a0parganas<\/em>\u00a0from this son, and give it to Sulaim\u00e1n and Ahmad; for Far\u00edd, by his care, has doubled their prosperity, and has so established his authority in them, as no one ever before did, nor has he committed any fault for which he ought to be removed. It is not right to quarrel with such an able son in your old age; especially in these times, when the authority of Sult\u00e1n Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm is shaken, and every Afgh\u00e1n of influence is aiming at power and independence.\u201d<\/p>\n M\u00ed\u00e1n Hasan replied to his relatives, \u201cI know it is not right to grieve Far\u00edd; but what can I do? for Sulaim\u00e1n and his mother have driven me into a strait, nor do they give me a moment’s rest. *** I am an old man, the time of my death is near at hand. I cannot break my promise. I give the manage\u00adment of the\u00a0
\n<\/strong>Kemanke\u015f Kara Mustafa Pasha<\/em>
\n<\/strong>\n
\nTREATY OF PEACE AND FRONTIERS: THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND PERSIA\n17 May 1639\nReaffirmed 4 September 1746, 28 July 1823, 31 May 1847)\n
\n
\n<\/strong>Rami Mehmed Pasha; Alex. Mavrocordatos; Counts Kinsky, Oettingen, <\/em>and de Schlik; Carlo Ruzzi; Stanis\u0142aw Ma\u0142achowski; Prokopiy Wosnitzin<\/em>
\n<\/strong>\n
\nTreaty of Peace concluded between\u00a0<\/em>Leopold\u00a0the most August Emperor of\u00a0<\/em>Germany, and\u00a0<\/em>Mustapha Han, Sultan of the\u00a0<\/em>Turks, by the Mediation of\u00a0<\/em>William III. King of\u00a0<\/em>Great Britain, and the Lords the States General of the\u00a0<\/em>United Netherlands, at the Congress of\u00a0<\/em>Carlowitz\u00a0in the County of\u00a0<\/em>Szerem, the\u00a0<\/em>26th of\u00a0<\/em>January, 1699.<\/em>\n
\n(L. S.) Leopold Count Schlik.\n
\nTreaty betwixt\u00a0<\/em>Augustus II.\u00a0King, and the Republick of\u00a0<\/em>Poland\u00a0on one part, and\u00a0<\/em>Mustapha Han, Sultan of the\u00a0<\/em>Turks\u00a0on the other, by the Mediation of\u00a0<\/em>William III. King of\u00a0<\/em>Great Britain, and of the Lords the States General of the\u00a0<\/em>United Netherlands\u00a0on the other, Concluded in a tent at\u00a0<\/em>Carlowitz\u00a0in the County of\u00a0<\/em>Szerem, the\u00a0<\/em>26th of\u00a0<\/em>January, 1699.<\/em>\n
\nThe\u00a0<\/em>Turkish\u00a0Instrument of The Peace entered into between\u00a0<\/em>Mustapha Han, Sultan of the\u00a0<\/em>Turks, and the most Serene Republick of\u00a0<\/em>Venice, as it was thro’ the Mediation of King\u00a0<\/em>William III. and the States General, concluded by the Imperial and\u00a0<\/em>Polish\u00a0Ambassadors, tho without the Participation of the\u00a0<\/em>Venetian\u00a0Ambassador, in hopes that it will be accepted by the said Republick ; for which end a certain Space of time is given and prefix’d. Done at the Congress of\u00a0<\/em>Carlowitz, the 14th of the Month\u00a0<\/em>Reciep, in the Year of the\u00a0<\/em>Hegira 1110.<\/em>\n
\n(L. S.) ALEXANDER Mauro Cordato di Scarlato.\n
\nThe Imperial and\u00a0<\/em>Polish\u00a0Instrument of the Peace to be establish’d and observ’d, between<\/em>\u00a0Mustapha Han,\u00a0Sultan of the<\/em>\u00a0Turks,\u00a0and the most Serene Republick of<\/em>\u00a0Venice ;\u00a0in which Instrument, by reason the\u00a0<\/em>Venetian\u00a0Ambassador exus’d himself from acting, the Imperial and\u00a0<\/em>Polish\u00a0Ambassadors take the<\/em>\u00a0Venetian\u00a0Affairs upon them, and in the Name of the most Serene Republick, enter into Conditions of Peace, leaving the said Republick a certain space of Time, either to accept or reject them. Done at the Congress at\u00a0<\/em>Carlowitz\u00a0in\u00a0<\/em>Szerem, the 26th of\u00a0<\/em>January\u00a01609. Together with the Approbation and Subscription of the Mediators, and the Acceptance and Ratification of the Said Treaty, by the most Serene Republick of\u00a0<\/em>Venice. Given at the Ducal Palace the 7th of<\/em>\u00a0Feb. 1699.<\/em>\n
\n(L. S.) Leopoldus C. Schlik,
\n(L. S.) S. Matachouski.\n
\n(L. S.) J. COLYER.\nA Copy of the Form added by the most Serene Republick of\u00a0<\/em>Venice, for the Ratification of the Instrument of Peace.<\/em>\n
\nSylvester Valerio Doge of Venice.
\nThe Ducal Seal is appendant in Silver.
\nAgostino Bianchi Secretary.\n
\n
\n<\/strong>Count Peter Rumyantsev; Musul Zade Mehmed Pasha<\/em>
\n<\/strong>\n
\n1. Public Treaty\n1.\u00a0To observe, with respect to all the in\u00ad habitants of these Principalities, of what\u00ad ever rank, dignity, state, calling, and extraction they may be, without the least exception, the absolute amnesty and eternal oblivion stipulated in Article I of the Treaty, in favour of all those who shall have actually committed any crime, or who shall have been suspected of having had the intention of doing injury to the interests of the Sublime Porte, re-establishing them in their former dignities, ranks, and possessions, and restoring to them the property which they were in the enjoyment of previously to the present war.
\n2. To obstruct in no manner whatsoever the free exercise of the Christian religion, and to interpose no obstacle to the erection of new churches and to the repairing of the old ones, as has been done heretofore.
\n3. To restore to the convents and to other individuals the lands and possessions formerly belonging to them, which have been taken from them contrary to all justice, and which are situated in the environs of Brahilow, Choczim, Bender, &c., now called Rai.
\n4. To entertain for ecclesiastics the particular respect due to their calling.
\n5. To grant to families who shall be desirous to quit their country in order to establish themselves elsewhere, a free egress with all their property; and in order that such families may duly arrange their affairs, to allow them the term of one year for this free emigration from their country, reckon ing from the day on which the present Treaty shall be exchanged.
\n6. Not to demand or exact any payment for old accounts, of whatever nature they may be.
\n7. Not to require from these people any contribution or payment for all the time of the duration of the war; and even, on ac\u00ad count of the devastations to which they have been exposed, to relieve them from all taxes for the space of two years, reckoning, from the day on which the present Treaty shall be exchanged.
\n8. At the expiration of the above-mentioned term, the Porte promises to treat them with all possible humanity and generosity in the monetary taxes which it shall impose upon them, and to receive them by means of deputies, who shall be sent to it every two years; and after the payment of these taxes, no Bacha, Governor, nor \u00a0any other person whatsoever shall molest them, or exact from them any other payments or taxes of what description soever, but they shall possess all the advantages which they enjoyed during the reign of the late Sultan.
\n9. The Porte allows each of the Princes of these two States to have accredited to it a Charg\u00e9 d’Affaires, selected from among the Christians of the Greek communion, who shall watch over the affairs of the said Principalities, be treated with kindness by the Porte, and who, not withstanding their comparative want of importance, shall be considered as persons who enjoy the rights of nations, that is to say, who are protected from every kind of violence.
\n10. The Porte likewise permits that, according as the circumstances of these two Principalities may require, the Ministers of the Imperial Court of Russia resident at Constantinople may remonstrate in their favour; and promises to listen to them with all the attention which is due to friendly and respected Powers.<\/blockquote>\n1.\u00a0To observe religiously, with respect to the inhabitants of these islands, the conditions stipulated in Article I concerning the general amnesty and the eternal oblivion of all crimes whatsoever, committed or suspected to have been committed to the prejudice of the interests of the Sublime Porte.
\n2. That the Christian religion shall not be exposed to the least oppression any more than its churches, and that no obstacle shall be opposed to the erection or repair of them; and also that the officiating ministers shall neither be oppressed nor insulted.
\n3. That there shall not be exacted from these islands any payment of the annual taxes to which they were subjected, namely, since the time that they have been under the dependence of the Empire of Russia; and that, moreover, in consideration of the great losses which they have suffered during the war, they shall be exempt from any taxes for two years more, reckoning from the time of their restoration to the Sublime Porte.
\n4.\u00a0 To permit the families who might wish to quit their country, and establish them\u00ad selves elsewhere, free egress with their property; and in order that such families may arrange their affairs with all due convenience, the term of one year is allowed them for this free emigration, reckoning from the day of the exchange of the present Treaty.
\n5. In case of the Russian fleet, at the time of its departure, which must take place within three months, reckoning from the day on which the present Treaty is exchanged, should be in need of anything, the Sublime Porte promises to provide it, as far as possible with all that may be necessary.<\/blockquote>\n
\n\n\t\tRussia\n\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\tThe Gorchakov Memorandum (1864)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExpand<\/i><\/a>\nThe Gorchakov Memoradum, 1864
\n<\/strong>Alexander Mikhailovich, Prince Gorchakov<\/em>
\n<\/strong>\n
\nThe Gorchakov Memorandum of 1864<\/strong><\/h3>\n
\n
\n\n\t\tMuhgals\n\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\tThe Tarikh-I Sher Shahi (1580)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tExpand<\/i><\/a>\nTarikh-I Sher Shahi\u00a0by Abbas Khan Sarwani, 1580
\n<\/strong>Abbas Khan Sarwani<\/em>
\n<\/strong>\n
\nT\u00e1r\u00edkh-i Sher Sh\u00e1h\u00ed; or, Tuhfat-i Akbar Sh\u00e1h\u00ed, of ‘Abb\u00e1s Kh\u00e1n Sarw\u00e1n\u00ed<\/strong><\/h3>\n